« Comparing ‘professional’ and
‘bureaucratic’ careers from a gender
perspective in France and Britain »
Nicky Le Feuvre
Pôle SAGESSE du laboratoire CERTOP-CNRS
Savoirs, Genre et rapports Sociaux de Sexe
Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail, France
lefeuvre@univ-tlse2.fr
1
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
2
Identify the mechanisms underlying the increasing
feminization of higher level occupations in 2 countries
historically characterized by relatively different “gender
contracts” and social welfare regimes;
Analyse the degree to which the feminization process
represents a challenge to the dominant “gender
regimes” in these occupations;
Compare the consequences of women’s entry into these
professions via ‘bureaucratic’ (salaried) or ‘professional’
(self-employment) forms of employment in terms of
the reproduction / reconfiguration of gender relations
in each national context.
Research questions :
To what extent does the feminization of previous ‘male
bastions’ in the occupational hierarchy contribute to a
radical transformation of the material and symobolic
foundations of the existing « sex/gender » system?
In other words, is the increase in women’s access to the
upper levels of the occupational hierarchy necessarily a
reliable empirical indicator of an increase in gender
equlity in contemporary European societies?
3
The sex/gender system:
Used here as a short-hand expression of the ‘total social
organisation of labour’ (Glucksmann, 1995) or ‘total
social phenomenon’ (Kergoat, 2000), based on two,
interrelated social processes:
 A division / differentiation of gendered categories
(« taboo of similarity between the sexes ») (Mathieu,
1992);
 A hierarchy between the gendered categories thus
created (« differential value of the sexes ») (Héritier,
1996).
4
Analysing the feminization of ‘male bastions’ requires paying
attention to different levels of social reality:
1. Macro social: « gender contract »

A comparaison of the historical construction of women’s (and
men’s) relationship to the labour market and the family in
different societal contexts (France / Britain);
2. Meso social: « gender regime »

Comparaison of the dominant modes of practice within different
occupational groups, including the organisation around
« bureaucratic» vs « professional » careers;
5
3. Micro social: « gendered experiences »

Comparaison of the individuel level management of the normes
associated with the ‘gender contract’ and ‘gender regime’
dimensions of the context (may be characterised by conformity,
contestation, transgression, of existing norms.)
Working hypotheses:


6
Several distinct social mecanismes may enable women to
enter existing ‘male bastions’; the feminization process is
never based on a single social process.
The precise meaning of the increasing entry of women
into the existing « male bastions » (in terms of the
reproduction / transformation of the existing sex/gender
system) depends to a large extent on the precise
mecanismes by which this feminization is acheived, in a
given societal and/or occupation context.
1. The French and British « gender contrats »:
3.
7
France: Relatively high full-time activity rates and continuous
career patterns (particularly for qualified women); fairly
extensive state support for the externalisation of domestic
activities (child-care, domestic services), but taxation system
generally unfavorable to dual-earner households, men’s share
of domestic labour limited and low levels of implementation
of equal opportunity measures in the workplace;
GB: Relatively high female activity rates, but historically on a
part-time and discontinuous basis, low levels of state support
for dual earner households (until recently), but, less
unfavorable tax system, relatively higher levels of
participation in family life by partners of the small number of
(highly qualified) full-time working women and more
extensive ‘equal opportunity’ measures in the workplace.
2. The « gender regimes » in professional / managerial occupations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
8
Bureaucratic / Organisational
careers (salaried)
Relatively easy access to
‘employment citizenship’ benefits
(eg. Paid maternity leave)
« Subjective » recruitment and
promotion criteria (individual
performance-related evaluations)
Hierarchical organisational structures
« Time commitment » and « spacial
mobility » as promotion criteria
« Up or out » management
techniques, except in the case of
specific equal opportunity measures.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Professional careers
(self-employed)
Almost no ‘employment citizenship’
benefits
« Objective » recruitment criteria
(qualifications + mandate)
Multiple forms of practice (individuel
self-employment, group practice,
professional associations)
Ability to mobilise personal contacts
and construct networks = main
criteria of professional ‘success’
Relative « time sovereinty » in the
work-life interface, despite long
hours
Caracteristices of the feminizing professions :
France
1.
2.
3.
4.
9
Universalistic conception of
gender equality ( = equal
treatment)
Predominance of small-scale
employment units and of
self-employment
Individual-level
management and ‘time
sovereinty’ possible via selfemployment, but limited
access to ‘family-friendly’
measures in salaried
employment
Extensive state support for
women’s employment, but
little investment by partners
or employers.
Great-Britain
1.
2.
3.
4.
Differentialiste conception of
gender equality (positive
action)
Predominance of large-scale
bureaucratic units and of
salaried employment
‘Family-friendly’ working
arrangements available in
(some) salaried positions
(« mummy tracks »), but
usually long working hours in
self-employment
Support from partner and
employer required to stay on
‘career track’, but relatively
limited state support (until
recently).
Consequences of the different contexts and
mecanisms of the feminization process?
Possible to identify (at least) two underlying logics:
1.
2.
10
A feminisation process based on the continuing
allocation of domestic responsibilities to women and
the elaboration of specific ‘female’ career patterns,
even in highly qualified occupations (cf. the
« féminitude » equality model, Le Feuvre, 1999)
A feminization process based on the alignment of
women along the previously existing male career
model norms and their distancing from domestic
responsabilities (cf. the « virilitude » equality model, Le
Feuvre, 1999, close to Fraser’s (1997) ’universal
breadwinner model’)
France / GB comparison (1)
Both models of occupational feminisation can be identified
in each of the national contexts under comparison.
However, they are not distributed in exactly the
same way accross the different occupations and
have not evolved in the same way over time in
each of the national contexts.
11
France / GB comparison (2)
France
Historical entry of women into the
professions earlier than in GB, thanks
to the « qualifications lever » and the
societal « gender contrat »
 Higher levels of feminisation of
professional / management
occupations throughout the second
half of the 20th Century than in GB
 Currently, massive increase in the
feminization of those higher level
occupations where ‘professional’
career patterns are predominant (eg.
medicine)
 Stagnation of feminization rates of
those occupations where
‘bureaucratic’ career patterns
predominate (ex. banking,
engineering)

12
Britain
Later start to the feminization
process of professional / mangerial
occupations than in France
 Lower levels of feminisation of
professional / management
occupations throughout the second
half of the 20th Century than in
France
 Currently, relatively large increase
in the feminization of those higher
level occupations where ‘bureacratic’
career patterns are predominant (eg.
banking)
 Stagnation of feminization rates of
those occupations where ‘familyfriendly’ or ‘positive action’
programmes are least developped,
with the exception of part-time

France / GB comparison (3)
France


13
Female careers in the ‘liberal’ (selfemployed) professions more
frequent, most often characterised
by the « féminitude » model of
feminization, where family
obligations serve as the template for
the organisation of professional life,
even when hours or work are long
Female careers in the ‘bureaucratic’
(salaried) professions, less frequent,
but most often characterised by the
« virilitude » model of feminization,
since ‘equal opportunity’ or ‘family
friendly’ policies are scarce and the
domestic division of labour is more
‘traditional’
Britain


Female careers in the the
‘bureaucratic’ (salaried) professions
more frequent, most often
characterised by the « féminitude »
model of feminization (except for
women from the ‘pioneer
generations’)
Female careers in the ‘liberal’ (selfemployed) professions, less frequent,
but most often characterised by the
« virilitude » model of feminization,
with the exception of part-time
professional careers in some
occupations.
Conclusions (1)
14
A similar (quantitative) level of occupational feminization does not
necessarily have the same sociological significance in all societal
contexts and/or in all occupational groups;
Macro social levels of analysis (« gender contrats ») are unable to
provide sufficient understanding of the issues at stake in the
occupational feminization process;
Analysis at the meso level (« gender regimes ») is particularly
enlightening when it comes to understanding the mecanismes that
underpin the feminization process in relation to the reproduction /
transformation of the material and symbolic foundations of the
sex/gender systems of contemporary societies;
Individual ‘experiences of gender’ also provide a useful template for
understanding the issues at stake > Reflect a combination of
‘structural’ and ‘contingent’ circumstances (Perrons at alii, 2007).
Conclusions (2)
The two modes of occupational feminization identifed
through the cross-national comparison don’t have exactly
the same consequences in terms of the reproduction /
reconfiguration / transformation of the existing sex/gender
system. However, neither of these models (both
underpinned by the existing so-called ‘equal opportunity’
policies adopted in each country) serve to question the
underlying dominant ethos of professional occupations, in
line with the ‘dual-earner/dual carer (Crompton, 1999) or
the ‘universal caregiver’ (Fraser, 1997) models, which have
been identified as a precondition for the emergence of true
gender equality within contemporary European societies.
15
The degree of change to the foundations of the sex/gender
system expected from the feminization of previous ‘male
bastions’ according to the analytical paradigm:
Degree of
reproduction
Gender
differentiation
mechanism
Gender hierarchy
mechanism
« Patriarchy »
« Féminitude »
« Virilitude »
« Gender
dynamics »
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-
+
++
--
+
-
++
Source : Based on Le Feuvre, Nicky (1999) « Gender, Occupational Feminisation and Reflexivity : A
Cross-National Perspective », In R. Crompton (dir.) The Restructuring of Gender Relations and
Employment, Oxford, Oxford University Press : 150-178.
16
Some bibliographical references:
17
Lapeyre, N., & Le Feuvre, N. (2007) « La féminisation de la profession médicale : une
condition suffisante de transformation du 'pouvoir médical' ? » In S. Stoffel (ed.)
Femmes et Pouvoirs, Bruxelles: Université des femmes: 187-208
Le Feuvre, N. & Lapeyre, N. (2005) « Féminisation du corps médical et dynamiques
professionnelles dans le champ de la santé », Revue française des affaires sociales 59
(1): 59-81
Le Feuvre, N. & Lapeyre, N. (2005) « Les ‘scripts sexués’ de carrière dans les professions
juridiques en France », Work, Knowledge & Society 3: 101-126
Lapeyre, N. & Le Feuvre, N. (2004) “Concilier l’inconciliable? Le rapport des femmes à la
notion de ‘conciliation travail-famille’ dans les professions libérales en France,
Nouvelles questions féministes 23 (3): 42-58
Crompton, R. & Le Feuvre, N., (2003) 'Continuity and Change in the Gender Segregation
of the Medical Profession in Britain and France', International Journal of Sociology
and Social Policy 23(4-5): 36-58.
Crompton, R. & Le Feuvre, N. (2000) “The Realities and Representations of Equal
Opportunities in Britain and France”, European Journal of Social Policy, 10 (4): 334348
Crompton, R. & Le Feuvre, N. (1997) « Choisir une carrière, faire carrière: les femmes
médecins en France et en Grande-Bretagne », Les Cahiers du Gedisst, n° 19: 49-75.