Socio-emotional Development
1
Socio-emotional development in
Infant & Toddlers
2
Emotional and Social
Development in Infancy and
Toddlerhood
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamics

Psychosexual stages
(S. Freud)
•Oral stage
•Anal stage
•Phallic
•Latency
•Genital

Psychosocial
(E. Erickson)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust Vs Mistrust
Autonomy Vs Shame
Initiative Vs Guilt
Industry Vs Inferiority
Identity Vs Identity Confusion
Intimacy Vs Isolation
Generativity Vs Stagnation
Integrity Vs Despair

PSYCHODYNAMIC STAGES
Age
Erikson’s Stage
Freud’s Stage
First Year
Basic Trust
vs
Mistrust
Oral
Second
Year
Autonomy
vs
Shame and Doubt
Anal
Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s)
Adolescent (12-19)
Integrity vs Despair
Generativity vs Stagnation
Intimacy vs Isolation
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Early Childhood (3-5)
Initiative vs Guilt
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
7
Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety

STRANGER ANXIETY

the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering
an unfamiliar person.
Appears in the second half of the first year.
Infants with more experience with strangers tend to show
less anxiety.
Infants tend to show less anxiety with female strangers and
other children than males.
The same cognitive advances that allow infants to respond so
positively to those with whom they are familiar also means they are
able to recognize people who are unfamiliar.
8

SEPARATION ANXIETY
.
 is the distress displayed by infants when a customary
care provider departs
Usually begins about 8 or 9 months and peaks at 14 months
Starts slightly later than stranger anxiety
Largely attributable to the same cognitive skills as stranger
anxiety.
 Both stranger & separation anxiety represent important
social progress! They reflect cognitive advances in the
infant, and growing emotional and social bonds!
9
More about understanding emotion…
Social referencing: Feeling what others feel
SOCIAL REFERENCING is the intentional search for
information to help explain the meaning of
uncertain circumstances and events
(modeling others, mimicking expressions)
First occurs in infants at about 8-9 months.
Infants make particular use of facial expressions in
their social referencing.
Social referencing is most likely to occur in
uncertain and ambiguous situations.
10
The Development of Self in Infancy
The roots of SELF-AWARENESS, knowledge of
self, begin to grow around 12 months.
•
•
•
Self-awareness is assessed by the mirror and rouge
task
Most infants touch their nose to attempt to wipe off the
rouge at 17-24 months.
Crying, when presented with complicated tasks, also
implies consciousness that infants lack capability to
carry out tasks.
11
Children's capacity to understand internationality
and causality grow during infancy.
By age two, infants demonstrate EMPATHY, an
emotional response that corresponds to the feelings
of another person.
By age two, children can "pretend".
12
ATTACHMENT
•
ATTACHMENT
•
the positive emotional bond that develops
between a child and a particular individual.
13
14
Early researchers studied bonds between parents and
children in the animal kingdom to understand attachment
Lorenz studied imprinting in animals, the rapid,
innate learning that takes place during a critical
period and involves attachment to the first moving
object observed.
Freud suggested that attachment grew out of a
mother's ability to satisfy a child's oral needs.
15
Harlow showed, with monkeys, that
food alone is insufficient to bring
about attachment.
In spite of the fact that the wire
monkey provided food, the infant
monkeys preferred clinging to the
warm, terry cloth monkey
16
ATTACHMENT
The earliest work on humans was carried out by John
Bowlby (Attachment theory) who suggested that
attachment had a biological basis.
Bowlby viewed attachment as based on infant's needs for
safety and security (especially from the mother)
Attachment viewed as critical for allowing the infant to
explore the world
Having a strong, firm attachment provides a safe base
from which the child can gain independence.
17
STRANGE SITUATION STUDY
• Based on Bowlby's work, Mary
Ainsworth developed the
AINSWORTH STRANGE
SITUATION, a sequence of 8 staged
episodes that illustrate the strength of
attachment between a child and
(typically) his or her mother.
18
The 8 staged episodes of the
AINSWORTH STRANGE SITUATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Mother & baby enter an unfamiliar room
Mother sits, letting baby explore
Adult stranger enters room can converses with
mom and then baby
Mother exits the room, leaving baby with stranger
Mom returns; greets and comforts baby and
stranger leaves
Mom departs leaving baby alone
Stranger returns
Mother returns and stranger leaves
19
Infants’ reactions to the strange situation vary
considerably, depending on the nature of attachment
with mother…
a.
2/3 are SECURELY ATTACHED CHILDREN, who
use mother as a safe base, at ease as long as she
is present, exploring when they can see her, upset
when she leaves, and go to her when she returns.
a.
20 % are labeled AVOIDANT CHILDREN who do
not seek proximity to the mother; after she leaves
they seem to avoid her when she returns as if
they are angered by her behavior.
20
(the strange situation technique, Mary Ainsworth,
nature of attachment , continued)
About 12 % are AMBIVALENT CHILDREN who display
a combination of positive and negative reactions to
their mothers; they show great distress when the
mother leaves, but upon her return they may
simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and
kick her.
A recent expansion of Ainsworth's work suggests a
fourth category: DISORGANIZED-DISORIENTED
CHILDREN who show inconsistent, often
contradictory behavior, such as approaching the
mother when she returns but not looking at her; they
may be the least securely attached children of all.
21
Attachment & Later
Development
Infant attachment may have significant consequences
for relationships at later stages in life.
Secure attachment related to positive outcomes in:
• Preschool
• Middle childhood
Continuity of care giving may link infant attachment
and later development.
But not all children who are not securely attached as
infants experience difficulties later in life; some
research suggests that those who had avoidant and
ambivalent attachment do quite well later in life.
Factors that Affect
Attachment Security
Opportunity for attachment
Quality of caregiving
• Interactional synchrony
Infant characteristics
Family circumstances
Parents’ internal working models
Multiple Attachments
Fathers
Siblings
Grandparents
Professional
caregivers
Self-Control
Ability to resist impulses
Emerges around 18 months
Improves through early childhood
Individual differences are lasting:
• Gender
• Sensitive caregiving
Compliance
Understanding and obeying
caregivers’ wishes and standards
Emerges between 12 and 18 months
Toddlers assert autonomy by
sometimes not complying
Warm, sensitive caregiving
increases compliance
Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance
and Self-Control
Respond with sensitivity and support
Give advance notice of change in activities
Offer many prompts and reminders
Reinforce self-controlled behavior
Encourage sustained attention
Support language development
Increase rules gradually
TEMPERAMENT
 TEMPERAMENT is the patterns of arousal and
emotionality that are consistent and enduring
characteristics of an individual.
Temperament refers to how children behave.
Temperamental differences among infants appear
from the time of birth.
Temperament shows stability from infancy
through adolescence
28
Temperament
(Alexander, Thomas & Chess)
EASY BABIES have a positive disposition; their body
functions operate regularly and they are adaptable.
DIFFICULT BABIES have negative moods and are slow to
adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation,
they tend to withdraw.
SLOW-TO-WARM-UP BABIES are inactive, showing
relatively calm reactions to their environment; their moods are
generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations,
adapting slowly.
29
Genetics and Environment
in Temperament
Responsible
Genetic
Influences
for about half of individual
differences
Ethnicity, gender
Cultural
Environmental
Influences
caregiving styles
Boys & girls treated differently
Parents emphasize sibling differences
Combines
Goodness
Of Fit
genetics and environment
Differences among Infants Personality
Development and Uniqueness
The origins of PERSONALITY (the sum
total of the enduring characteristics that
differentiate one individual from another)
begin in infancy
31
Personality Development and Uniqueness, continued
Erik Erikson's THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT considers how individuals
come to understand themselves and the
meaning of others - and their own - behavior.
The theory suggests that developmental
change occurs throughout the life span in 8
distinct stages
•
The first stage occurs in infancy, our current focus
32
Erikson’s theory
of psychosocial development
Infancy marks the time of the TRUST-VERSUS-MISTRUST
STAGE (birth to 18 months) during which infants develop a
sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well
their needs are met by their caretakers.
From around 18 months to 3 years infants enter the
AUTONOMY-VERSUS-SHAME-AND-DOUBT STAGE during
which Erikson believed toddlers develop either
independence and autonomy (if they are allowed the
freedom to explore) or shame and doubt (if they are
restricted and overprotected).
 Erikson argues that personality is largely shaped by infant's
experiences
33
Socio-emotional Development in
the Early Childhood (preschool)
34
Self Concept in the School Years:
Thinking About the Self
During the preschool period, children
wonder about the nature of self
The way they answer the question
“Who am I?” at this stage may affect
their whole life!
35
(Self concept in the preschool years, cont…)
Preschoolers begin to form their SELF-CONCEPT
(their identity, or their set of beliefs about what one is
like as an individual).
Youngsters typically overestimate their skills and
knowledge (their self concepts are NOT necessarily
accurate).
They also begin to develop a view of self that
reflects the way their particular culture considers the
self.
36
Psychosocial Development
According to Erikson’s preschoolers have already passed
through a couple of Developmental stages, & to pass through
the stages, a conflict/crisis must be resolved at each stage
• Preschoolers experience the INITIATIVE-VERSUS-GUILT
STAGE, the period during which children experience conflict
between independence of action and sometimes negative results
of that action.
37
The Initiative Vs Guilt Stage
Conflict occurs between the desire to become more
independent and autonomous and the guilt that may
occur.
Preschoolers with supportive parents =independent &
autonomous
Preschoolers with restrictive, overprotective parents =
shame & self-doubt
The foundational concept of this stage is that children
become aware that they are people too! They begin to
make decisions and shape the kind of person they are
to become!
38
Developing Racial & Ethnic Awareness
By the time they are 3 or 4 years of age,
preschoolers distinguish between members of
different races and begin to understand the
significance of race in society.
Some youngsters begin to show preferential
feelings for members of their own race.
39
Gender Identity: Developing Femaleness & Maleness
Gender, the sense of being male or female, is well
established in young children.
One way gender is manifested is in play.
• During the preschool years boys increasingly play with
boys.
• Girls tend to play with girls.
Gender out-weighs ethnic variables when it comes to play
• A boy would prefer to play with boys, than with girls
Preschoolers also begin to develop expectations about
appropriate behavior for girls and boys.
Like adults, preschoolers expect males to be more
independent, forceful and competitive and females to be
warm, nurturing, expressive and submissive.
These are expectations and not truths about actual behavior!
But viewing the world this way affects preschoolers behavior!
However, young children typically hold stronger gender40
stereotypes than adults.
Preschoolers' Social Lives (Social Development)
The preschool years are marked by increased interactions
with the world at large.
Around age 3, children begin to develop real friendships.
Peers come to be seen as individuals with special qualities.
R/shipbased on companionship, play & entertainment.
Friendship is focused on the carrying out of shared activities
(rather than just being in the same place at the same time!).
With age, preschooler's view of friendship evolves.
•
•
•
Older preschoolers see friendship as a continuing state, & as a
stable relationship that has meaning beyond the immediate
moment.
Older preschoolers pay more attention to concepts such as
trust, support, and shared interests.
Even by age 3, children are interested in maintaining smooth
41
social relationships with their friends, trying to avoid
disagreements.
(Preschool Social Life…)
Some children are more readily liked by their peers than others.
Qualities associated with
popularity
physical attractiveness
being outgoing
being sociable
speaking more
smiling more
having a greater
understanding of others‘
emotions
Qualities associated with
disliked children
more likely to be aggressive
More disruptive,
impose themselves on their
peers
less cooperative
do not take turns.
42
Playing by the Rules: How Play Affects Social &
Personality Development
Categorizing play:
Three year olds typically engage in FUNCTIONAL PLAY
which involves simple, repetitive activities, that is, doing
something for the sake of being active.
(playing with dolls, skipping, jumping rope, etc)
By age 4, children typically engage in CONSTRUCTIVE
PLAY which involves manipulating objects to produce or build
something (legos, puzzles, etc.)
• Constructive play allows children to test developing
cognitive skills.
• Constructive play allows children to practice motor skills.
• Constructive play allows children to problem solve.
• Constructive play allows children to learn to cooperate
43
TYPES of PLAY (Parten, 1932)
Non Social Play - is where a child only observe others play,
i.e. did not involve in the play
Solitary play - A child play with his/her toys only, i.e. no
contact with other children even though other children is
around.
Onlooker play - occurs when children simply watch others play
but do not actually participate themselves
Parallel play - is when children play with similar toys, in a
similar manner, but do not interact with each other.
Associative play- is when children play together in the same
activities/ game and communicate with each other. But without
specific task/aim.
Cooperative play- occurs when children play together and
have aim and specific task organize play and each have
44
their own role to play.
More about the effects of play on social and
personality development…
Associative and cooperative play generally do not emerge
until the end of the preschool years.
The nature of a child's play is influenced by their social
experiences.
• Children with preschool experience engage in more social
behaviors earlier (associative & cooperative play, etc.)
45
Discipline: Teaching Preschoolers Desired Behaviors
PARENTING

Diana Baumrind (1980) notes 3 major types of
parenting or patterns of discipline:
 AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS
 PERMISSIVE PARENTS
 AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS
46
Authoritarian Parents are controlling, punitive, rigid, & cold, &
whose word is law; they value strict, unquestioning obedience from
their children & do not tolerate expressions of disagreement..
Permissive Parents provide lax & inconsistent feedback and
require little of their children.
2 types of permissive parents:
•
Permissive-indifferent parents are usually uninvolved in their
children's lives.
• Their children tend to be dependent and moody.
• Their children also tend to have low social skills and low selfcontrol
Permissive-indulgent parents are more involved with their children,
but they place little or no limits or control on their behavior.
• Their children typically show low control and low social skills.
• However, these children tend to feel that they are especially
privileged.
Authoritative Parents are firm, setting clear & consistent limits,
but try to reason with their children giving explanations for why they
47
should behave in a particular way.
Effect of parenting style on children…..
Children of authoritative parents tend to fare best: they are
independent, friendly with their peers, self-assertive, and
cooperative parents are not always consistent in their parenting
or discipline styles.
Children whose parents engage in aspects of the authoritative
style related to supportive parenting
• Supportive parenting encompasses parental warmth,
proactive teaching, calm discussion during disciplinary
episodes, and interest and involvement in children's peer
activities show better adjustment and are protected from the
consequences of later adversity.
48
Childrearing practices that parents are urged to follow reflect
cultural perspectives about the nature of children and the role of
the parents.
• Childrearing practices in Eastern societies are more likely to
involve strict control. Such control is seen as a measure of
parents‘ involvement in and concern for the welfare of their
children.
• In Western societies, and especially in the United States,
parents are more often advised to use authoritative methods.
However  No one parenting style is likely to be
successful or universally accepted! Cultural context
must be taken into consideration
49
Middle Childhood:
Social and Personality Development
50
Social & Personality Development: Understanding
Oneself in Middle Childhood
Children in middle childhood are struggling to understand
who they are, and continue to explore answers to the
question “Who am I?”
The Developing Self…….
~ During middle childhood, children begin to view
themselves less in terms of external physical attributes and
more in terms of psychological traits.
• Children realize they are good at some things and not so
good at others.
• Their self-concepts become divided into personal and
academic spheres…
51
Children use SOCIAL COMPARISON, comparing themselves to
the abilities, expertise, and opinions of others.
Festinger proposed that when objective measures are absent,
people rely on social reality to evaluate themselves
(understanding that comes from studying how others act, think,
feel, and view the world).
Children look to others who are similar to themselves.
Sometimes children make downward social comparisons with
others who are obviously less competent or successful to raise
or protect their self-esteem.
This explains why some students in elementary school have
very high self esteem in spite of the fact that are in special
education classes
• Big fish in a small pond
52
Erikson’s :Industry vs Inferiority
•
According to Erik Erikson, middle childhood
encompasses the INDUSTRY-VERSUS-INFERIORITY
STAGE, the period from ages 6 to 12 characterized by a
focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the
challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the
other complexities of the modern world.
53
Industry vs Inferiority….
Success in this stage is evidenced by feelings of
mastery, proficiency, and confidence.
Difficulties lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy,
and to withdrawal from academics and socialization
with peers
Attaining a sense of industry during middle childhood
has lasting consequences!
• High levels of childhood industry associated with
adult success (more so than intelligence and family
background!)
54
Self esteem: Evaluating the self
Children evaluate themselves in terms of physical and
psychological characteristics, but they also think of
themselves as being good or bad (involves emotions)
SELF-ESTEEM, an individual's overall and specific
positive and negative self-evaluation, develops in
important ways during middle childhood.
55
Self esteem develops in important ways during middle
childhood…
Children increasingly compare themselves to
others.
Children are developing their own internal
standards.
Self-esteem, for most children, increases during
middle childhood.
Children with low self-esteem may become
enmeshed in a cycle of failure that is difficult to
break.
56
A cycle of Low Self-Esteem
If a child has low self-esteem
and expects to do poorly on
a test, she may experience
anxiety and not do as well,
which confirms the negative
self view. Parents can break
this cycle a warm and
supportive style.
57
Relationships in Middle Childhood:
Building Friendships

Children’s development is seriously
effected by the formation of friendships in
middle childhood
~~ Friendships influence children's
development in several ways.
58
The influence of friendships on children’s
development
Friends provide information about the world and
other people.
Friends provide emotional support and help kids to
handle stress.
Friends teach children how to manage and control
their emotions.
Friends teach about communication with others.
Friends foster intellectual growth.
Friends allow children to practice relationship
59
skills
During the middle childhood period, children’s
ideas about friendship undergo changes…
According to developmental psychologist William Damon,
children's friendships go through three stages:
•Stage 1 –ages 4-7
•Stage 2- ages 8-10
•Stage 3 - ages 11-15.
60
Damon’s 3 stages of friendship
Stage 1 – [ages 4-7]
• Children see friends as like themselves.
• Children see friends as people to share toys and activities with.
• Children do not take into account personal traits.
Stage 2 - ages 8-10.
• Children now begin to take other's personal qualities and traits into
consideration.
• Friends are viewed in terms of the kinds of rewards they provide.
• Friendships are based on mutual trust.
Stage 3 - ages 11-15.
• Friendships become based on intimacy and loyalty.
• Friendships involve mutual disclosure and exclusivity.
• Children also develop clear ideas about the behaviors they seek in61
friends…
Behaviors favored in friends during middle childhood
Least-liked
Verbal aggression
Dishonesty
Critical
Greedy/bossy
Teasing
Physical aggression
Most-liked
Sense of humor
Nice/friendly
Helpful
Complementary
Sharing
Loyalty
62
What makes a child popular during middle childhood?
Popular children have SOCIAL COMPETENCE, the collection of
individual social skills that permit individuals to perform
successfully in social settings.
Common characteristics of popular children
•
•
•
•
•
•
They are helpful and cooperative.
They have a good sense of humor.
They have good emotional understanding.
They ask for help when necessary.
They are not overly reliant on others.
They can adapt to social situations.
63
Some characteristics of unpopular
children
Unpopular children lack social competence.
They may act immature or inappropriately silly.
They may be overly aggressive and overbearing.
They may be withdrawn or shy.
They may be unattractive, handicapped, obese,
or slow academically.
64
Adolescent
Socio-emotional Development
Personality & Identity
Development
65
Identity: Asking "Who Am I?"
During adolescence, self consciousness takes center stage!
Teens focus on wondering “Who am I?” and “Where do I belong
in the world?”
WHY??
• Teens begin to become more like adults intellectually
• Realize the importance of establishing self in society, and
shaping their individuality
• Teens become more like adults physically
• Dramatic changes during puberty make teens acutely aware of their
own bodies
66
Self Concept: Refining Self Perceptions
Self concept broadens during adolescence to include
both one's own assessment of who you are and also
includes others' views.
•
•
The view of self becomes more organized and coherent.
Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of traits and can
see multiple aspects of themselves (which can be confusing
at first).
67
Self-esteem: Evaluating Oneself
During adolescence, teens become
increasingly accurate in
understanding who they are (they
develop their self concept)
The increase in self-concept does
not mean that they like themselves
any better (self esteem may still be
low)
68
Self-esteem is influenced by several factors:
Gender - especially in early adolescence, girls
have lower self-esteem
SES - higher SES leads to more self-esteem
(especially in late adolescence when one can
buy things of value)
69
Forming an identity during the teen years: crisis or
change?
Erik Erikson asserted that adolescents may
encounter substantial psychological difficulties in
their search for identity (“the adolescent identity
crisis”)
Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-VERSUSIDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE, where
adolescents seek to determine what is unique and
distinctive about themselves.
70
71
Erikson's IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION
STAGE
Those who do not find a suitable identity, tend to follow a
dysfunctional path because their sense of self is "diffuse".
There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure
identity (or at least have clear career or major goals).
• Which job track to follow?
• Attend college? Which one?
Now, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than
adults.
72
What is IDENTITY?
Identity is a new way of thinking about oneself that
emerges during adolescence.
Identity involves a sense of self-unity,
accompanied by a feeling that the self has
continuity over time.
A firmly established identity also provides a sense
of uniqueness as a person.
73
During Adolescent Stage
Changes occurs  influence adolescent to find
and form own identity (differs from their
parents).
Changes that occurs forced adolescent to
“adjust and re-arrange” their lives  formed a
new identity.
The physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development  its impact and influence on
adolescent.
Form own perception on self  include peers
evaluation.
74
Approaches in understanding
identity
Involve the cognitive element
• Self-concept
Involve emotion element
• Self-value or self-image
Involve personal element
• Questions about self
75
Search for Identity
According to Erikson:• A teenagereffort to make sense of the self is a:• Part of a healthy , vital process that builds on the
achievement of earlier stages.
• Groundwork for coping with the crisis of adult
life.
• A man needs a stable identity before reaching
intimacy, whereas, women define themselves
through marriage and motherhood ( may be
76
different now).
IDENTITY
Erik Erikson,
• defined identity as a "subjective sense of an
invigorating sameness and continuity," as well
as a "sense of feeling active and alive.“
According to Erikson's psychosocial model
of development, identity must be perceived
by the individual, but also recognized and
confirmed by others
77
Erickson’s Psychosocial
Developmental Stage
8 series of stages  begin with infancy
and ending with old age.
Each stage is named for the particular
psychosocial crisis or challenge that an
individual must resolve before moving to
the next stage.
78
Erikson's Stages of Development
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (0-1 yr)
Autonomy Versus Shame (1-3 yrs)
Initiative Versus Guilt (3-6 yrs)
Industry Versus Inferiority (6-12)
Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (12-19)
Intimacy Versus Isolation (19-25)
Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (25-50)
Integrity Versus Despair (50 & above)
79
Stage 5:
Identity vs Role Confusion
Focus on:
• Formation of identity
• Coherent
80
IDENTITY - According to James Marcia
Marcia argued that
• identity could be viewed as a structure of beliefs,
abilities and past experiences regarding the self.
• "The better developed this structure is, the more
individuals appear to be of their own...strengths and
weaknesses....
• The less developed this structure is, the more
confused individuals seem to be about their own
distinctiveness from others and the more they have
to rely on external sources to evaluate themselves."
81
Identity is a dynamic, not static
psychological structure.
The formation of identity in adolescence
sets the stage for continual changes in the
content of identity through the adult years.
82
Marcia's Identity Statuses
In Marcia's model, identity involves the adoption of
• a sexual orientation,
• a set of values and ideals and
• a vocational direction
A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one's
strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness.
A person with a less well-developed identity is not able to
define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses, and
does not have a well articulated sense of self.
83
According to Marcia
Crisis & Commitment  influence individual
identity status.
Identity formation  a long term process.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Choose
Arrange
Try
Push out
Re-built
Finally  choose (unique to him/her self)
84
Marcia’s identity formation process
Foreclosure.
Diffusion.
Moratorium.
Achievement.
* Not progressive  based on experience
and exploration
85
Foreclosure.
Commitment without crisis
Lack exploration of alternatives
Commitment has been made, but without
exploration of alternatives, identity is not
attained
Developmentally unsophisticated level of
achievement
Adopt parents' characteristics
86
Diffusion
Lack of commitment
Lack of exploration of alternatives
Least sophisticated level of development
Typically the level at which identity
formation is begun
Do not feel accepted by parents
87
Moratorium
Active exploration of alternative
identities
Commitment is desired, but it is not yet
attained
Sophisticated level of development
88
Achievement
Individual has explored alternatives.
Commitment is at a high level
According to individual's in this status, "The parts of
my self feel as though they have finally come
together." ( Archer, 1990 ).
Most developmentally sophisticated status of
identity formation.
Perceive parents as supportive
89
SUMMARY ON MARCIA’S
90
Identity Confusion
Identity problem
Autonomy problem
Attachment problem
Sexuality problem
Achievement problem
91
Social Influence in Identity
Formation
Family
• Discipline & relationship
Environment
•
•
•
•
•
•
Socio-cultural
Diet
Education
Peers
Status symbol
Mass media
92
Career Development
Beginning of Career Choice
Career choice begin early:
• Personal experience:
• Watching parents/neighbours
• Adult conversation
• Role Play
• Temporary/part-time work
Early experience  adolescent learn  will continue
developing career towards their interest.
However  career choice may change with maturity.
Stages in Career Development
Since the age of 10  a child stars to think
what they want to be when they grow up 
will continue until 24 yrs old.
Pre adolescent period Career choice are
based on
• Fantasy/Dream
• Excitement/Adventure
• Not on their ability
Stages in Career Development
Early & middle adolescent  choice of
career change according to their interest,
ability and their values.
Late adolescent & early adult  able to make
a correct choice according to own ability,
experience and knowledge.
• Choice of career are more clearer and
establish after succeeded entering
college/higher learning institutions.
Theories
Theories in Career Choice/Development
Ginzberg
Holland
Ginzberg’s Career Choice Theory
Ginzberg (1972) suggested 3 stages people move
through in choosing a career.
• Fantasy (11 & below)
• Tentative (11-17 yrs. old)
• Realistic (17/18 & above)
Stage 1: Fantasy
Choice of career (ambitions) are made based on:
• Excitement & interesting
• Emotions & not practicality
• Child perceptions
* Fantasy period – the period of life when career
choices are made – and discarded – without regard
to skills, abilities, or available job opportunities
Stage 2: Tentative
Focus  on self
Career choice based on 4 aspects:
•
•
•
•
•
Interest (11-12 years old)
Capasity (13-14 years old)
Values (15-16 years old)
Transition (16-17 years old)
Early adolescent  interest play a major role but as they grow
older  more matured  start thinking about their ability.
• Integration between interest and ability  from the value
system.
* Tentative period- the second stage which spans adolescence, in which
people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the requirements of
various jobs and how their own abilities might fit with those
requirements
Stage 3: Realistic
Focus on career opportunity and market
demand.
Starts reviewing their aspiration, needs & interest,
their ability and occupational work demand.
Choice are also made based on:
• Experience & achievement so far.
• Family influences
• Personal job influence
Realistic period – the stage in late adolescence and
early adulthood during which people can explore
career options through job experience or training,
narrow their choices, and eventually make a
commitment to career
John Holland Theory of
Career Choice
John Holland Personality –Type Theory
According to Holland (1959):
• Individual personality influences a person
choice of career .
• 6 types of basic personaliti  6 types of
basic occupations
• Only certain types of occupation suits a
specific personality.
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
Personalities & basic environment:
• Realistic
• Investigative
• Conventional
• Enterprising
• Artistic
• Social
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
Realistic – down-to earth, practical problem solvers,
physically strong, mediocre social skills
Intellectual/Investigative – theoretical and abstract
orientation, not particularly good with people
Conventional – prefer highly structured tasks
Enterprising – risk takers and take-charge types, good
leaders
Artistic – use art to express themselves and prefer the world
of art to interactions with people
Social – verbal skills and interpersonal relations are strong,
good at working with people
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
YOUR Type of
PERSONALITY
•Realistic
•Investigative
•Conventional
•Enterprising
•Artistic
•Social
Type of Suitable
JOB environment
Suits
•
•
•
•
•
•
Realistic
Investigative
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic
Social
Potential
to succeed
Investigative/Intellectual
Like to investigate  suitable to an abstract type of
occupation, intellectual and scientific.
Individual Characteristic
•Clever
•Analytical
•Independent
•Rasional
•Curious
Type of Occupation
•Mathematicians
•Chemist
•Biologist
•Physicist
Not interested in Enterprising type of work
Realistic
Prefer job in an objective environment  does not
involve good communication skills, involves physical &
related to technical and farming.
Fav. type of work characteristics  relate to machine,
equipment, nature & athletic.
Individual Characteristic
•Mechanical
•Aggresive
•Strong/athletic
•Stuborn
•Stern
Type of Occupation
•Mechanic
•Rangers
•Carpenter
•Farmers
•Contracters
•athletics
Not interested in work related to Social
Convensional
Career choice  involve community support but
does not involve lot of thinking Suitable in
concrete and predictable envirobnment. Prefer
routine and structural type of work.
Individual Characteristic
•Specific/precise
•Ordarly
•Practical
•Effisyen
•Careful
Type of Occupation
•Accountant
•Proof-reader
•Statistician
•Secretary
Not interested in artistic type of work
Enterprising
Suitable in an adventurous, energizing and
challenging work environment. Have an
empowering and extrovert personality, and loves
power.
Individual Characteristic
•Coherent
•Agresive
•Ambitious
•Confidence
•Controlling
Type of Occupation
•Sales person
•Politician
•Businessman
•Legal/law
•Evangelism
Not interested in realistic type of work
Artistic
Suitable in an artistic  arts and designing
environment  able to express their creativity.
Individual Characteristic
•Independent
•Creative
•Non-conformist
•Abstract
•Idealistic
Type of Occupation
•Musician
•Artist/sculpture
•Dancer/singer
•Acting
•Others  related to art
Not interested in conventional type of work.
Social
Prefer job related to the social, administrative or
treating environment.  ability in communication
and interpersonal relationship.
Individual Characteristic
•Cooperative
•Tolerant
•Social
•Empathy
•Understanding
Type of Occupation
•Teaching
•Counselor
•Social work
•Psychologist/ psychiatrist
•Nurse/doctor
Not interested in realistic type of occupation.