Cultural dimensions
Pascal (1623-1662): “There are truths on this side of the
Pyrenees that are falsehoods on the other.”
Hofstede (2001) Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions and
Organisations Across Nations
Defines culture as “collective programming of the mind”.
Mental programs are developed in the family in early childhood and reinforced in schools and
organisations. These programs are a component of national culture. We cannot observe the
programs themselves, only behaviour, words, deeds.
Expressed in different values that predominate in different countries. These are non-rational, though
we may feel that they are rational. They are the building blocks of culture. They shape institutions,
roles, rules, laws, relations.
Values deal with such things as: evil vs. good, dirty vs. clean, dangerous vs. safe, decent vs. indecent,
ugly vs. beautiful, unnatural vs. natural, abnormal vs. normal, paradoxical vs. logical, irrational vs.
rational, moral vs. immoral
A norm is a value held and applied by the majority in a society.
Hofstede identifies five dimensions of national cultures. Uses the term subcultures for groups within
societies.
NB we are not talking about ‘national character’ here but common components in mental programs.
Other factors are age group, gender, educational level, socio-economic status.
Some countries more culturally homogeneous than others.
Subjective human culture includes language, personal space, to whom we show respect, how we
view eating, defecation, making love, and so on.
Programming at three levels: universal (human - inherited), collective (learned), individual. Here we
are concerned with the second.
‘Ecological fallacy’ – applying collective findings to individuals, e.g. criminality among Blacks, Roma
‘Ethnocentrism’- the exaggerated tendency to think the characteristics of one’s own race or group
superior to those of other groups or races.
Power distance
Relates to attitudes to (in)equality. Shows the level of expectation of members of the society that
power will be (un)evenly distributed. Members of a society where power distance is high are more
willing to accept concentration of authority and a hierarchical order in which they all have a place. In
a society where power distance is low people expect unevenly distributed power will be equalised
and justified in some way.
Inequality may occur in social status and prestige, wealth, power, privileges. In Europe we like to
think we are all equal before the law, but this does not always seem to work out in practice. Of
course, no society has ever achieved complete equality (barriers may be class, caste, racial, ethnic,
regional); in Western democracies the aim is usually ‘equality of opportunity’ (look at ‘Social mobility
index’ on the website).
Two extremes: monolithism and pluralism. In the former power is held by a few, in the latter
competition between groups is encouraged, democratic politics flourishes and information is not
controlled.
Superordinate-subordinate patterns may appear in family relations (parent-child, male-female) as
well as politics, religion, work, education. Inequality in power tends to be reflected (or a reflection
of?) inequality in other social spheres.
Where PD is high people are less likely to express disagreement towards someone with higher status
and disagreement is generally less tolerated. This may depend on (or reflect?) how much
disagreement and questioning is accepted in the education system.
In a high PDI situation, the education process is teacher centred, the teacher initiates
communication, students speak up only when invited, teachers are not publicly contradicted or
criticised, there is more emphasis on rote learning. At the university level knowledge is presented as
the personal wisdom of the teacher. The quality of learning is dependent on teachers. In a low PDI
context, teachers treat students as basic equals (and the younger the teacher, the more this applies),
the education process is student-centred with an emphasis on student initiative; students make
uninvited interventions and are expected to ask questions in class when they don’t understand;
students may disagree and argue with teachers; when a child misbehaves the parents often side with
the child against the teacher. The education process involves the transfer of impersonal ‘facts’ and
‘truths’. The quality of learning is dependent on students.
Decision-making styles (in business, politics):
1)
2)
3)
4)
Autocratic (“tells”)
Persuasive/paternalistic (“sells”)
Consultative (“consults”)
Participative/consensus (“joins”)
PD Index and health: the popular image of stress affecting managerial staff is not supported by
research. People feel stress when they feel they have no control over their own situation – it is lower
ranking staff who suffer from stress-related illness.
Religion: a high PDI is more likely in societies dominated by a hierarchical religion such as
Catholicism, less likely in a Protestant society.
Power Distance Index
Mexico
Venezuela
China
Egypt
India
Yugoslavia
Slovenia
Brazil
France
Hong Kong
Poland
Turkey
Belgium
Portugal
Greece
Spain
Czech Republic
Japan
Italy
USA
Netherlands
Australia
Germany
UK
Switzerland
Finland
Norway
Sweden
Ireland
New Zealand
Denmark
Austria
81
81
80
80
77
76
71
69
68
68
68
66
65
63
60
57
57
54
50
40
38
36
35
35
34
33
31
31
28
22
18
11
Connotations of Power Distance Index
Low PDI
Low value on children’s obedience
Students put high value on independence
Authority based on secular-rational arguments
Prevailing religions and ideas stress equality
High PDI______________________________
All should have equal rights
Managers consult subordinates before making
decisions
Close supervision negatively evaluated by
subordinates
Stronger work ethic; disbelief that people dislike
work
Employees less afraid of disagreeing with boss
High value on children’s obedience
Students put high value on conformity
Authority based on tradition
Prevailing religions and ideas stress stratification
and hierarchy
Power holders are entitled to privileges
Managers take decisions autocratically,
paternalistically
Close supervision positively evaluated by
subordinates
Weaker work ethic; more frequent belief that
people dislike work
Employees afraid to disagree with their boss
Employees show more cooperativeness
Employees reluctant to trust each other
Higher educated employees hold less
authoritarian values than lower-educated ones
Citizens broadly satisfied with the way
democracy works
Citizens cooperate with authorities, as in waste
recycling
Less corruption; scandals end political careers
Higher and lower-educated employees show
similar values regarding authority
Citizens dissatisfied with the way democracy
works
Citizens wait for action by authorities
More corruption; scandals expected to be
covered up
All Latin countries in Europe (and Latin America) show higher PDI values, while all English-speaking
and Scandinavian / Germanic countries show lower ones.
In politics, high PDI leads to more polarisation and a weak centre. “In France and Italy administrative
elites are distinctly unrepresentative of the total population as far as their social origins are
concerned, much more so than in Britain, Germany, the Netherlands and the United States.”
Uncertainty avoidance
The level to which people feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity, and their attitude
towards the fact that the future cannot be predicted.
Cultures with a high degree of uncertainty avoidance tend to follow strict rules and convictions and
are intolerant towards unorthodox behaviour and ideas; they also value security and place a lot of
faith in experts (who can transform uncertainty into certainty). Cultures with low uncertainty
avoidance are more flexible and tolerant, and value generalists, common sense and experience.
A high UAI usually connects with faith in the theoretical and the search for absolute truths, to
totalitarian ideologies; a low UAI connects with pragmatism and an emphasis on the empirical, also
with an ability to accept ambiguity.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index
Greece
Portugal
Belgium
Japan
Slovenia (Yu)
France
Spain
Turkey
Mexico
Brazil
Italy
Austria
Germany
Thailand
Finland
Switzerland
Netherlands
Australia
Norway
New Zealand
Canada
USA
UK
Ireland
Sweden
Denmark
Singapore
112
104
94
92
88
86
86
85
82
76
75
70
65
64
59
58
53
51
50
49
48
46
35
35
29
23
8
Organisations use rules and bureaucracy to reduce uncertainty. Memos, reports, meetings as rituals.
In high UAI countries, with regard to the world of work:
-
lower ambition for advancement, preference for specialist positions
preference for large organisations (less risk)
more approval for loyalty to the organisation
tendency to avoid competition among employees, to prefer group decisions
resistance against change
reluctance to work for foreign manager
pessimistic outlook on the motivations driving companies.
In education: more emphasis in high UAI countries on rote learning and less willingness to say ‘I don’t
know’.
Religion is a way of avoiding uncertainty. Some organised religions present themselves as bearers of
absolute truth and there tends to be intolerance towards other faiths.
Low UAI countries tend to be ‘looser’, more tolerant: norms are expressed with a wide range of
alternative channels; deviant behaviour is easily tolerated; group values less developed.
Common law (England & Wales) based on case law and precedent; there are fewer laws and may be
no written constitution. Civil law (Slovenia, most of Europe) based on Roman law, a codified system,
abstract systems.
Connotations and Social Norms of Uncertainty Avoidance Index
Low UAI
Greater readiness to live by the day, take life as
it comes
Ease, lower stress
Less emotional resistance to change
Less hesitation to change employer, loyalty not
seen as a virtue
Lower average age in higher job levels;
managers selected on other criteria than
seniority
Stronger achievement motivation and more
personal ambition
Hard work is not a virtue per se
Hope of success
More risk-taking
A manager need not be an expert in the field
Hierarchical structures can be bypassed for
pragmatic reasons; rules may be broken
Preference for broad guidelines
Conflict in organisations is natural
Less show of emotions, aggressive behaviour
frowned upon
High UAI
More worry about the future, uncertainty is a
threat
Higher anxiety and stress
More emotional resistance to change
Tendency to stay with same employer, loyalty
valued
Higher average age in higher job levels gerontocracy; managers selected on seniority
Less achievement motivation and low personal
ambition
Inner urge to work hard
Fear of failure
Less risk-taking
A manager should be an expert
Hierarchical structures should be clear and
respected; rules should not be broken
Preference for clear requirements and
instructions
Conflict in organisations is undesirable
More show of emotions, aggressive behaviour
accepted
Competition between employees natural;
contained by fair play and used constructively
Higher tolerance for ambiguity in perceiving
others
More prepared to compromise with opponents
Acceptance of foreigners as managers
Large fraction prepared to live abroad
Citizen optimism about ability to control
politicians’ decisions
Optimism about people’s initiative, ambition and
leadership skills
Deviance not felt as threatening, greater
tolerance
Less nationalism
Competition emotionally disapproved of, seen as
leading to conflict
Lower tolerance for ambiguity in perceiving
others
Lower readiness to compromise with opponents
Suspicion towards foreigners as managers
Fewer people willing to live abroad
Citizen pessimism about ability to control
politicians’ decisions
Pessimism about people’s initiative, ambition
and leadership skills
Deviant persons and ideas are a threat;
intolerance
More nationalism
Young democracies tend to show higher UAI scores than older established democracies. Political
attitudes also fostered in family, school and work relationships.
More likely to get ‘political’ bureaucrats in high UAI countries, with politically neutral ones in low UAI
countries (civil service in UK).
In low UAI countries there may be no ID cards, no legal requirement to prove who you are: UK,
Ireland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden (though widely used for identification), also USA, Canada,
Australia. Tells us something about the relationship between citizens and the authorities – the
burden of proof is on the latter.
On the high UAI side anxiety is released through aggression and shows of emotion, on the low side
more through relaxation and displays of emotion/aggression are not approved of socially. In low UAI
countries competition and conflict is less threatening; there is more tolerance of alternative ideas,
ways of seeing things and different behaviour by ‘outsiders’ and the young.
In high UAI cultures achievement tends to be associated with acquiring security and risk-taking is
avoided. In low UAI cultures achievement is determined in terms of recognition.
Individualism vs. collectivism
Individualism: a preference for a looser social framework in which the individual is expected to take
care of self and family. In collectivist societies the individual can rely on the help of relatives and
social groups.
In collectivist societies maintaining ‘face’ in relation to one’s social position is more important than
achieving personal goals.
Some societies based on the nuclear family, some the extended families, clans or tribes.
Tönnie’s (1887) sociological distinction between gemeinschaft (low individualism) and gesellschaft
(high individualism). Societies seem to move from the former to the latter through the rise of the
modern state, the progress of science and commercialisation.
In a collectivist society it is assumed that what is best for the group is also best for the individual.
The USA is the main exporter of business theories, also of self-help and other guides; it is also an
extremely individualist society. How relevant are these theories elsewhere?
Individualism Index
USA
Australia
UK
Canada
Netherlands
New Zealand
Italy
Belgium
Denmark
Sweden
France
Ireland
Norway
Switzerland
Germany
Finland
Austria
Spain
India
Japan
Brazil
Turkey
Greece
Mexico
Portugal
Yugoslavia
Slovenia
Hong Kong
Thailand
Singapore
Pakistan
Venezuela
91
90
89
80
80
79
76
75
74
71
71
70
69
68
67
63
56
51
48
46
38
37
35
30
27
27
27
25
20
20
14
12
Connotations and Societal Norms of Collectivism vs. Individualism
Low IDV______________________________________High IDV________________________
Extended families and clans offer protection in
return for loyalty
“We” consciousness, collective-orientation
Identity based on the social system
Stress on identity and roots
Emphasis on belonging
Involvement with organisations primarily moral
Less emphasis on privacy, opinions
predetermined
Expertise, order, duty, security comes from the
group
Importance of company provisions (training,
physical conditions)
Emotional dependence on company; employees
expect the organisation to look after them
Qualification in terms of years of schooling,
more years required for given job
Staying with company desirable, old-timers
make better managers; less occupational
mobility
Students consider it less socially acceptable to
claim pursuing their own ends without minding
others
Students place greater emphasis on duty
More importance attached to training and use of
skills
Managers aspire to orderliness, conformity
Managers rate security highly
Group decisions better than individual ones
Initiative discouraged
Duty, expertise, prestige as work goals
People thought of in terms of groups;
particularism
Social relations predetermined by group
membership
Less press freedom
Labour movement more united; more interested
in sharing management responsibility
You take care of yourself and your immediate
family
“I” consciousness, self-orientation
Identity based on the individual
Worship of the independent actor
Emphasis on individual initiative and
achievement
Involvement with organisations primarily
calculative
Everyone has a right to a private life and opinion
Autonomy, variety, pleasure, individual financial
security
Importance of employees’ personal lives (time)
Emotional independence; low expectations of
organisations, individuals defend own interests
Qualification in terms of performance of tasks,
fewer years required for given job
Staying with company undesirable, fast-tracking
of managers; greater occupational mobility
Students consider it socially acceptable to claim
pursuing their own ends without minding others
Students place greater emphasis on enjoying
themselves
More importance attached to freedom and
challenge at work
Managers aspire to leadership and variety
Managers rate autonomy highly
Individual decisions better
Initiative encouraged
Pleasure, affection and security as life goals
People thought of in general terms; universalism
Need to make specific friendships
More press freedom
Labour movement more atomised; less
interested in sharing management responsibility
Comparing PDI and IDV:
Large power distance / low individualism: Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, Brazil, Mexico
Large power distance / high individualism: Belgium, France, Italy
Small power distance / high individualism: UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand; slightly lower
individualism Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Germany, Switzerland, Austria
Masculinity vs. femininity
NB: This is not about the roles of women and men in the culture.
‘Masculine’ societies strives towards achievement, heroism and material reward for success, and are
more competitive. Masculine traits include assertiveness, materialism/material success, selfcenteredness, power, strength, and individual achievement. ‘Feminine’ societies value cooperation,
modesty and quality of life.
NB: not about the role of men and women. The UK ranks high on the masculinity index but does
quite well in terms of equal opportunities and combating sexism.
Sex role patterns are almost entirely a matter of socialisation (the family, school). Men and women
learn their place in society and once they have done so the majority of them want it that way. In
many (most?) societies boys learn within the family to do ‘instrumental’ tasks and girls to do
‘expressive’ tasks. Later, they tend to follow the available role models, e.g. women in ‘caring’
professions.
Masculinity Index
Japan
Austria
Venezuela
Italy
Switzerland
Mexico
Ireland
UK
Germany
USA
Australia
New Zealand
Greece
Hong Kong
India
Belgium
Canada
Pakistan
Brazil
95
79
73
70
70
69
68
66
66
62
61
58
57
57
56
54
52
50
49
Singapore
Turkey
France
Spain
Thailand
Portugal
Finland
Yugoslavia
Slovenia
Denmark
Netherlands
Norway
Sweden
48
45
43
42
34
31
26
21
19
16
14
8
5
Connotations and Societal Norms of Masculinity Index (MAS)
Low MAS______________________________________High MAS________________________
Relationships at work, atmosphere, employment
security more important
Belief in group decisions
Weaker achievement motivation; service ideal
Achievement defined in terms of human
contacts and living environment
Work less central to life; work to live
People prefer shorter working hours to more
salary
Work/organisational interference in private life
rejected
Lower job stress
Less industrial conflict
Preference for smaller organisations
People orientation
Interdependence ideal
Intuition
Levelling: don’t try to be better than others;
modesty a virtue
Purchases for use
Small and slow are beautiful
More unmarried cohabitation
Mothers have bigger say on number of children
(fewer children in poor countries, more in rich)
Men need not be assertive, can take caring roles
Women in more qualified jobs not particularly
assertive
Weak gender differentiation in socialisation of
children; similar role models; both boys and girls
allowed to cry, neither to fight
Earnings, recognition, advancement, challenge
more important
Belief in independent decision making
Stronger achievement motivation; achievement
ideal
Achievement defined in terms of recognition and
wealth
Greater work centrality; live to work
People prefer more salary to shorter working
hours
Work/organisational interference in private life
accepted,
Higher job stress
More industrial conflict
Preference for larger organisations
Money and things orientation
Independence ideal
Decisiveness
Excelling: try to be the best; ambition a virtue
Purchases for showing off
Big and fast are beautiful
More quick marriages
Men have bigger say (more children in poor
countries, fewer in rich)
Men should behave assertively, women should
care
Women in more qualified jobs very assertive
Strong gender differentiation in socialisation of
children; different role models; boys don’t cry,
boys should fight back
Belief in the equality of the sexes; women can be
breadwinners
Men and women follow the same types of
higher education
Less occupational segregation
Each partner has own interests
Sex role equality in children’s books
Students’ social adaptation is important
The average student is the norm
Ego effacing: own performance underrated
Students less interested in recognition; show
sympathy for the weak/unfortunate
The needy should be helped
The wealthy pay taxes to help the poor
Matter-of-fact attitudes about sex
Single standard for men and women; active role
of women
Weak distinction between sex and love
Sex is a way of relating to someone
Unwanted intimacies not a major issue
Young people more influenced by parents
Religion focuses of fellow human beings
Christian countries: more affinity to
Protestantism
Reading: more non-fiction
Less confidence in advertising
Belief in inequality of the sexes; men are
breadwinners
Men and women follow different types of higher
education
Some occupations typically male, others female
Partners should share interests
More sex role differentiation in children’s books
Students’ performance is important
The best student is the norm
Ego boosting: performance underrated
Students aspire to recognition; admiration for
the successful achiever
The strong should be supported
The fate of the poor is the poor’s problem
Moralistic attitudes to sex
Double standard: women should be chaste;
passive role of women
Sharp distinction between sex and love
Sex is a way of performing
Sexual harassment a major issue
Young people more influenced by peers
Religion focuses on God or gods
Christian countries: more affinity to Catholicism
Reading: more fiction
More confidence in advertising
In more masculine cultures: greater emphasis on success and failure, winners and losers.
“Winning isn’t the most important thing – it’s the only thing.” George Allen, US sports coach.
Is there a “culture of narcissism” in the USA? Ego-boosting norm encourages young people
to take themselves and their problems seriously. In Netherlands an ego-effacing norm.
Self-assessment of skills (1998 survey): in a survey 79% of US adults rated their literacy skills
as excellent compared to 31% in the Netherlands.
Characteristics of men perceived in high MAS societies: sense of responsibility, decisiveness,
liveliness, ambition; and of women: caring, gentleness. Macho behaviour may be ridiculed in
feminine cultures.
Feminism in more masculine societies: political correctness and rights for women at work. In
more feminist societies: changing society so that men can play more ‘feminine’ roles and
thus share the burden of family. Implies men’s lib as well as women’s.
In masculine countries people more willing to sacrifice family to work, to relocate for work.
Ambitious women may have to ‘sacrifice’ their motherly role to some extent.
In masculine societies purchases are often about display: cars, watches, jewellery, electronic
gadgets. The car is a joint purchase in more feminine societies.
Discourse: ‘report’ talk masculine (transferring info), ‘rapport’ talk feminine (building
relationships).
Reading habits: masculine cultures more concern with data, facts; feminine cultures with the
stories behind the facts.
Scepticism towards advertising based on masculine (US) values.
The environment: in feminine countries people more prepared to pay an environmental
premium. In low PDI countries more prepared to get personally involved in environmental
issues, not simply leave them to the authorities.
Sexual harassment: less of a concern in more feminine societies (especially those that are
also low PDI) as women more confident of their rights and status.
Sexual behaviour in a survey among unmarried female students (18-25) in Sweden and USA:
greater acceptance of extramarital sex among the former, less likelihood of referring to guilt
and exploitation, greater use of contraceptives and sex after a shorter time.
Catholicism is more masculine in its values: cult of the Virgin, uneasy about sex for pleasure
rather than procreation, celibacy for priests, official stance against divorce, contraception,
abortion.
Long-termism vs. short termism
Long-Term Orientation is the fifth dimension added by Hofstede after the original four to try
to distinguish the difference in thinking between the East (the influence of Confucius) and
the West.
Confucianism not a religion but a set of pragmatic rules for everyday life. The philosopher Confucius
lived from 551-476 BC (a little before Socrates in Greece). Key ideas:
-
the stability of society is based on unequal relations
the family is the prototype of all social organisations
virtuous behaviour towards others consists of treating them as you would be treated
yourself
virtue with regard to one’s tasks in life consists of trying to acquire skills and education,
working hard, being frugal, patient and persevering
Societies with short-term orientation strive to establish “absolute truth”. They value tradition and
norms – because they are focused most on the past and present – and want to get results as quickly
as possible. They are unlikely to save for the future. Face saving and being seen as a stable individual
are important. Greetings, favours and gifts are reciprocated. Includes the UK and the USA.
Long term societies see truth as dependent on the situation, context and time. Relationships are
ordered by status. They change their traditions and norms in response to the changing situation and
achieve results through persistence and caution. Important events are in the future. They have a
strong propensity to save and invest. There is a strong work ethic, a belief in moderation and ‘the
middle way’. Personal connections (guanxi) link the family sphere and the business sphere, built up
over a lifetime. Good examples are China and Japan.
“The superior man goes through life without any one preconceived action or any taboo. He
merely decides for the moment what is the right thing to do.” LI Chi (100 BC)
An survey among business leaders from 1996 showed the following 7 top values:
Asians – hard work, respect for learning, honesty, openness to new ideas, accountability, selfdiscipline, self-reliance
Americans – freedom of expression, personal freedom, self-reliance, individual rights, hard
work, personal achievement, thinking for oneself
Long-term orientation
China
Hong Kong
Taiwan
Japan
South Korea
Brazil
India
Thailand
Slovenia
Singapore
Netherlands
Sweden
Australia
118
96
87
80
75
65
61
56
49
48
44
33
31
Germany
New Zealand
USA
Kenya
Ethiopia
UK
Zambia
Norway
Philippines
Ghana
Nigeria
31
30
29
25
25
25
25
20
19
16
16
Differences Between Short- and Long-Term Oriented Societies
Low LTO______________________________________High LTO________________________
Children should learn tolerance and respect for
others
Gifts to children for their self-concept and love
All siblings are equal
Living with in-laws is a problem
Couple should share tastes and interests
Preschool children will not suffer if mother
works
Family life guided by imperatives
Immediate gratification of needs expected
Humility is a feminine virtue
Shame is not a common feeling
Status is not a major issue in relationships
Short-term virtues taught: consumption (keeping
up with the Joneses)
Leisure time important
Spending
In business, short term results, the bottom line
Traditions are sacrosanct (!)
In business, short term results, the bottom line
Absolute guidelines about good and bad
Government by law
Need for cognitive consistency
Analytic thinking, fuzzy problem solving
Children should learn thrift
Gifts to children for their education and finances
Differentiation between older and younger
Living with in-laws is no problem
Shared tastes and interests no a requirement
Preschool children will suffer if mother works
Family life guided by shared tasks
Deferred gratification of needs
Humility is a general human virtue
A sense of shame is common
Relationships ordered by status
Long-term virtues taught: frugality,
perseverance
Leisure time less important
Saving, investing
In business, building of relationships and market
position
Traditions adaptable to changed circumstances
In business, building of relationships and market
position
What is good and bad depends on the
circumstances
Government by men
Opposites complement each other
Synthetic thinking, structured problem solving
Culture only exists by comparison
The country scores on the dimensions are relative - societies are compared to other societies.
Without make a comparison a country score is meaningless.
These relative scores have been proven to be quite stable over decades. The forces that cause
cultures to shift tend to be global or continent-wide. This means that they affect many countries at
the same time, so that if their cultures shift, they shift together, and their relative positions remain
the same.
The country scores on The Hofstede Dimensions can also be found to correlate with other data about
the countries in question. Some examples: Power distance is correlated with income inequality in a
country. Individualism is correlated with national wealth. Masculinity is correlated negatively with
the percentage of women in democratically elected governments. Uncertainty avoidance is
associated with the legal obligation in developed countries for citizens to carry identity cards. Longterm orientation is correlated with school results in international comparisons
For country ratings see: http://geert-hofstede.com/countries.html
Power distance (PDI)
Slovenia
71
UK
35
Slovenia scores high on this dimension (score of 71) which means that people accept a hierarchical
order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an
organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect
to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat.
At 35 Britain sits in the lower rankings of PDI – i.e. a society that believes that inequalities amongst
people should be minimized. Interestingly, research shows the PD index is lower amongst the higher
class in Britain than amongst the working classes. The PDI score at first seems incongruent with the
well-established and historical British class system and its exposes one of the inherent tensions in the
British culture – between the importance of birth rank on the one hand and a deep seated belief that
where you are born should not limit how far you can travel in life. A sense of fair play drives a belief
that people should be treated in some way as equals.
Uncertainy avoidance (UAI)
Slovenia
88
UK
33
Slovenia scores 88 on this dimension and thus has a very high preference for avoiding uncertainty.
Countries exhibiting high uncertainty avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are
intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. In these cultures there is an emotional need for rules
(even if the rules never seem to work) time is money, people have an inner urge to be busy and work
hard, precision and punctuality are the norm, innovation may be resisted, security is an important
element in individual motivation.
At 35 the UK has a low score on uncertainty avoidance which means that as a nation they are quite
happy to wake up not knowing what the day brings and they are happy to ‘make it up as they go
along’ changing plans as new information comes to light.
As a low UAI country the British are comfortable in ambiguous situations - the term ‘muddling
through’ is a very British way of expressing this. There are generally not too many rules in British
society, but those that are there are adhered to (the most famous of which of of course the British
love of queuing which has also to do with the values of fair play).
In work terms this results in planning that is not detail oriented – the end goal will be clear (due to
high MAS) but the detail of how we get there will be light and the actual process fluid and flexible to
emerging and changing environment. Planning horizons will also be shorter.
Most importantly the combination of a highly individualistic and curious nation is a high level of
creativity and strong need for innovation. What is different is attractive! This emerges throughout
the society in both its humour, heavy consumerism for new and innovative products and the fast
highly creative industries it thrives in – advertising, marketing, financial engineering.
Individualism (IDV)
Slovenia
27
UK
89
Slovenia, with a score of 27 is considered a collectivistic society. This is manifest in a close long-term
commitment to the member 'group', be that a family, extended family, or extended relationships.
Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides most other societal rules and
regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for fellow
members of their group. In collectivist societies offence leads to shame and loss of face,
employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a family link), hiring and
promotion decisions take account of the employee’s in-group, management is the management of
groups.
At a score of 89 the UK is amongst the highest of the individualistic scores, beaten only by some of
the commonwealth countries it spawned i.e. Australia and the USA.
The British are a highly individualistic and private people. Children are taught from an early age to
think for themselves and to find out what their unique purpose in life is and how they uniquely can
contribute to society. The route to happiness is through personal fulfilment. As the affluence of
Britain has increased throughout the last decade, with wealth also ‘spreading North’, a much
discussed phenomenon is the rise of what has been seen as rampant consumerism and a
strengthening of the ‘ME’ culture.
Masculinity/femininity (MAS)
Slovenia
19
UK
66
Slovenia scores 19 on this dimension and is thus considered a feminine society. In feminine countries
the focus is on “working in order to live”, managers strive for consensus, people value equality,
solidarity and quality in their working lives. Conflicts are resolved by compromise and negotiation.
Incentives such as free time and flexibility are favoured. Focus is on well-being, status is not shown.
At 66 Britain is a masculine society – highly success oriented and driven. A key point of confusion for
the foreigner lies in the apparent contradiction between the British culture of modesty and
understatement which is at odds with the underlying success driven value system in the culture.
Critical to understanding the British is being able to ‘’read between the lines’’ What is said is not
always what is meant. In comparison to feminine cultures such as the Scandinavian countries, people
in the UK live in order to work and have a clear performance ambition.
Long term orientation (LTO)
UK
25
Slovenia
49
At 25 the UK scores as a short term oriented society which drives a great respect for history and
tradition as well as a focus on quick results in the future. As mentioned above, planning horizons
tend to be short and business particularly is very focused on short term quarterly goals and quick
results. The notion of giving up something today for the promise of something bigger in the future is
not a widely held notion, more usual is the belief that ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’.
The structure of the London Stock Exchange further perpetuates this pattern – its relentless focus on
quarterly results to drive stock valuations exacerbates the culture of focus on short term results. This
culture is much discussed in the press with many companies complaining that the LSE drives a culture
that gets in the way of genuine longer term relationship building and long term investment projects.
The London Stock Exchange is of course a product of British culture!
Cartoon 'explaining' Hofstede's dimensions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gJzRS0I7tA&feature=related
Interview with Hofstede
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nLQxU8BbGCY&feature=related