The Problem of Vocabulary:
Defining Best Practice for
Struggling Readers
Michael C. McKenna
Georgia Southern University
connotation
denotation
sociogram
distinguishing feature
distributed practice
open sort
word family
What is vocabulary?
word-hoard
estuary
argon
id
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
impertransibility
queck
nould
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
2005
Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.)
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
2005
Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.)
660,000+ words
webcam
cyberphobic
doh
2005
Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.)
660,000+ words
English users follow set rules for
coining new words, thus adding
greatly to the number of potential
words in the language.
English users follow set rules for
coining new words, thus adding
greatly to the number of potential
words in the language.
The postman likes our street
because it is dogless.
Are you a
logophile?
50K
40K
30K
20K
10K
0
5,000
1,500
•
•
K
12
50K
45,000
40K
30K
17,000
20K
10K
0
5,000
1,500
K
12
A Vocabulary Riddle
To comprehend what we read, at least
95% of the words must be recognized
automatically.
How is this possible given the number of
words in English?
NRP Findings on Vocabulary




Teaching vocabulary improves general
comprehension ability.
Preteaching vocabulary helps both word
learning and comprehension of a selection.
Much vocabulary is acquired through
incidental exposure.
Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts
are important.
The Vocabulary Catch-22
Children need to learn more words to
read well, but they need to read well to
learn more words.
McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers.
Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.
NRP Findings on Vocabulary




A combination of definitions and contextual
examples works better than either one alone.
Many instructional methods can be effective in
teaching vocabulary.
Instructional methods should result in active
engagement.
Both direct and indirect methods should be
used.
NRP Findings on Vocabulary



The more connections that are made to
a word, the better the word tends to be
learned.
Computer applications can be effective.
The effectiveness of some instructional
methods depends on the age or ability
of the children.
What the NRP said they didn’t know
about vocabulary instruction





Which methods work best with students of
different ages and abilities?
How can technology best be used to teach
vocabulary?
How is vocabulary best integrated with
comprehension instruction?
What combinations of instructional methods tend
to work best?
What are the best ways to assess vocabulary?
What are some of the
guiding principles of
teaching vocabulary?
Guiding Principle
Preteach key words to
improve comprehension.
In 1367, Marain and the settlements
ended a seven-year war with the
Langurians and Pitoks. As a result of this
war, Languria was driven out of East
Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and
the other lands that once belonged to
Languria. This brought peace to the
Bacolean settlements. The settlers no
longer had to worry about attacks from
Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be
part of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years
later, these same people would be fighting
the Marish for independence, or freedom
from United Marain’s rule.
In 1763, Britain and the colonies
ended a seven-year war with the French
and Indians. As a result of this war,
France was driven out of North America.
Britain would now rule Canada and the
other lands that once belonged to France.
This brought peace to the American
colonies. The settlers no longer had to
worry about attacks from Canada. The
Americans were happy to be part of
Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later,
these same people would be fighting the
British for independence, or freedom from
Great Britain’s rule.
Guiding Principle
Provide more than definitions.
WORD
=
DEFINITION
WORD
Stimulus
=
DEFINITION
Response
WORD
=
DEFINITION
Stimulus
Response
truncate
“to cut off”
WORD
=
DEFINITION
Stimulus
Response
truncate
“to cut off”
“She truncated the lights.”
Connotations
What’s the difference between a fiddle and a
violin?
Guiding Principle
Combine definitions and
contextual examples.
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Guiding Principle
Minimize rote copying of
definitions.
Guiding Principle
Introduce new words in
related clusters.
antennae
thorax
leg
wing
abdomen
In content areas,
clustering words is natural!
But general vocabulary words can
also be clustered –
if you work at it!
Which list is easier to learn?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
fuselage
flaps
rudder
stabilizer
landing gear
tail
lift
drag
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
puce
spire
cad
drab
deft
fad
apt
wry
puce
puce
beige
magenta teal
ochre
cyan
mauve saffron
chartreuse
puce
beige
magenta teal
ochre
cyan
mauve saffron
chartreuse
Some Exceptions to the
Cluster Approach
Words Named for People
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
einsteinium
teddy bear
boycott
pasteurize
watt
decibel
saxophone
braille
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
silhouette
sousaphone
zinnia
sideburns
shrapnel
magnolia
hooligan
gardenia
Words Named for Places
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
bikini
tuxedo
badminton
hamburger
californium
uranium
plutonium
damask
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
ottoman
bayonet
cologne
frankfurter
magenta
marathon
tangerine
manila
Words with Unusual Stories
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
bazooka
bleachers
blurb
cowlick
crowbar
Dixie
gas
goatee
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
googol
gorilla
jeep
jumbo
sandwich
Pacific
serendipity
tank
Blends (Portmanteaus)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
beefalo
bit
brunch
caplet
cockapoo
electrocute
guestimate
infomercial
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
jack rabbit
liger
lox
modem
moped
motel
sitcom
skort
More Blends . . .
•
•
•
•
•
slurb
smog
snazzy
splatter
spork (why not
foon?)
• squiggle
• tangelo
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
telethon
tiglon
transister
twiddle
zap
zedonk
breen
Acronyms
•
•
•
•
•
•
scuba
radar
sonar
laser
snafu
fubar
Mnemonics
principle
rule
principal
pal
Roy G. Biv
Guiding Principle
Provide brief, periodic review.
A Thought Experiment
Group 1
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
• This hour is uninterrupted.
Group 2
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
• This hour is broken into 6 10-minute
sessions, 1 per month for 6 months.
Assuming that no one
encountered any of the 20
words again, which group
would do better on a test
after a delay of 10 years?
massed
vs.
distributed
practice
Guiding Principle
Stress the connections among
related terms.
Guiding Principle
Tie new words to old
knowledge.
“Comprehension is building bridges
from the new to the known.”
– Pearson & Johnson
Guiding Principle
Maximize the volume of
reading that students do.
Guiding Principle
Stress tools students will
need, such as context and
structural analysis.
millimeter
geothermal
taxation
millimeter
geothermal
taxation
millimeter
geothermal
taxation
millimeter
geothermal
taxation
millimeter
geothermal
taxation
millimeter
geothermal
taxation
Guiding Principle
Beware of the limitations of
definitions.
Dushanbe
Dushanbe
capital city of Tajikistan, in the west of
the country in the Gissar Valley
– Encarta World English Dictionary
Dushanbe
capital city of Tajikistan, in the west of
the country in the Gissar Valley
– Encarta World English Dictionary
Guiding Principle
Minimize rote copying of
definitions.
A Closer Look at Definitions
cabbage
Synonyms are sometimes
enough to define adjectives.
cabbage n.
1. a vegetable about as large and
wise as a man’s head
(Bierce, The Devil’s Dictionary)
2. (Webster)
an adult female human
Distinguishing
features
Class
What are some of the
most effective ways of
teaching vocabulary?
Some Research-Based Techniques
 Read-Alouds
 Semantic Feature Analysis
 Other Charting Approaches
 Graphic Organizers
 Semantic Maps (webs)
 Word Sorts
 Word Lines
 List-Group-Label
 Possible Sentences
Read-Alouds
Semantic Feature
Analysis
humans
adult
female
woman
+
+
man
+
o
girl
o
+
boy
o
o
humans
adult
female
woman
+
+
man
+
o
girl
o
+
boy
o
o
humans
adult
female
woman
+
+
man
+
o
girl
o
+
boy
o
o
humans
adult
female
woman
+
+
man
+
o
girl
o
+
boy
o
o
humans
adult
female
woman
+
+
man
+
o
girl
o
+
boy
o
o
popinary
popinary
“a fry cook”
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
+
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
s
+
+
Graphic Organizers
A graphic organizer is a diagram
that shows how key terms are
related.
What’s so great about them?
•
•
•
•
•
•
They help kids “see” abstract content.
There is little to “read.”
They are easy to construct and discuss.
Technical terms can be taught in clusters.
They enhance recall and understanding.
They have an impressive research base.
Time Lines
(and other continua)
Goldilocks
finds cottage
Goldilocks
finds cottage
Goldilocks
eats porridge
Goldilocks
finds cottage
Goldilocks
eats porridge
Goldilocks
goes upstairs
1500
1600
1700
1800
Columbus
reaches
North America
1500
Pilgrims
land at
Plymouth
1600
American
Revolution
begins
1700
1800
Shakespearean Tragedy
Act 1
Act 2
Act 3
Act 4
Act 5
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Resolution
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Rising
Action
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Resolution
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Rising
Action
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Falling
Action
Complication
Resolution
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
egg
adult
larva
pupa
How to Find the Area of a Triangle
No
Right
triangle?
Multiply
legs
Determine
height
Multiply
by base
Yes
Divide
by 2
Tree Diagrams
Musical Instruments
Musical Instruments
wind
nonwind
Musical Instruments
wind
brass
nonwind
woodwind
Musical Instruments
wind
brass
nonwind
woodwind
string
percussion
Musical Instruments
wind
brass
trumpet
nonwind
woodwind
clarinet
string
violin
percussion
drum
Venn Diagrams
Liberals
Republicans
Turkeys
Doves
Turkeys
Doves
Turkeys
Doves
Birds
Turkeys
Birds
Turkeys
Birds
Turkeys
Doves
Birds
Turkeys
Rational
Numbers
Integers
“She named him _____
because she loved onesyllable words beginning with
J.”
Boys’ Names
Boys’ Names
J-words
Boys’ Names
One-syllable
words
J-words
Boys’ Names
Jim
One-syllable
words
J-words
Boys’ Names
Arthur
Jim
One-syllable
words
J-words
Boys’ Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
One-syllable
words
J-words
Boys’ Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
jabber
One-syllable
words
J-words
Boys’ Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
jam
One-syllable
words
jabber
J-words
Boys’ Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
rest
One-syllable
words
jam
jabber
J-words
Boys’ Names
Arthur
Ray
Jerry
Jim
rest
One-syllable
words
jam
jabber
J-words
Blue People
Tall People
Thin People
Blue People
Tall People
Thin People
drugs
stimulants
depressants
alcohol
prozac
caffeine
dexadrine
drugs
stimulants
depressants
caffeine
dexadrine
alcohol
prozac
drugs
stimulants
depressants
caffeine dexadrine
alcohol prozac
antennae
thorax
leg
wing
abdomen
Labeled Picture
Sociograms
HH
H
P
P
H
P
P
P
H
P
P
P
P
Three Branches of
Government
executive
legislative
judicial
Three Branches of
Government
executive legislative
judicial
executive
legislative
judicial
executive
veto
legislative
judicial
executive
confirmation
construction
veto
appointment
apportionment
legislative
judicial
judicial review
executive
legislative
judicial
veto, confirmation, appointment, judicial review,
apportionment, construction, override
A Midsummer Night’s Dream
Hermia
Demetrius
Lysander
Helena
Hermia
Demetrius
Lysander
Helena
Hermia
Demetrius
Lysander
Helena
Hermia
Demetrius
Lysander
Helena
Hermia
Demetrius
Lysander
Helena
Hermia
Demetrius
Lysander
Helena
Hermia
Demetrius
Lysander
Helena
Huckleberry Finn
fan-tods
yallerboys
mudcat
Illinois
Missouri
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
Hannibal
Missouri
•
Illinois
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
Hannibal
Missouri
•
Illinois
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
Sara
Delano
(1855-1941)
James
Roosevelt
(1828-1900)
Elliott
Roosevelt
(1860?-94)
Franklin
Delano
Roosevelt
(1882-1945)
Anna
b. 1906
James
b. 1907
Anna
Hall
(1863-92)
Anna
Eleanor
Roosevelt
(1884-1962)
Elliott
b. 1910
FDR, Jr.
b. 1914
John
b. 1916
Semantic Maps
(Word Webs)
Ben Franklin
Founding
Father
Ben Franklin
Founding
Father
Poor Richard’s
Almanac
Ben Franklin
Founding
Father
Poor Richard’s
Almanac
Ben Franklin
Electricity
(kite)
Founding
Father
Poor Richard’s
Almanac
Ben Franklin
Philadelphia
Electricity
(kite)
Founding
Father
Poor Richard’s
Almanac
Ben Franklin
Invented
bifocals
Philadelphia
Electricity
(kite)
Founding
Father
Daylight
Savings
Poor Richard’s
Almanac
Ben Franklin
Invented
bifocals
Philadelphia
Electricity
(kite)
Merging Webs
and Trees
Web Tree?
golf
sport
golf
sport
golf
Putt-Putt
sport
golf
Putt-Putt
Best
ball
sport
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
Best
ball
sport
hit ball with
implement
golf
outdoor
Putt-Putt
Best
ball
sport
Tiger
hit ball with
implement
golf
outdoor
Putt-Putt
Best
ball
sport
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
outdoor
Best
ball
sport
kolf?
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
outdoor
Best
ball
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
outdoor
Best
ball
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
outdoor
Best
ball
pool
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
outdoor
Best
ball
pool
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
outdoor
Best
ball
pool
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
9-ball
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
bars
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
9-ball
sport
kolf?
Golfimble
Tiger
rich
people
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
blue
collar
bars
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
9-ball
sport
kolf?
Tiger
rich
people
wagering
Golfimble
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
blue
collar
bars
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
9-ball
sport
kolf?
Tiger
rich
people
wagering
Golfimble
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
blue
collar
bars
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
9-ball
sport
kolf?
Tiger
rich
people
wagering
Golfimble
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
blue
collar
bars
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
9-ball
sport
kolf?
Tiger
rich
people
wagering
Golfimble
hit ball with
implement
golf
Putt-Putt
pool
blue
collar
bars
outdoor
Best
ball
8-ball
9-ball
Word Lines
hot
cold
hot
tepid
cold
hot
tepid
sweltering
cold
hot
tepid
sweltering
cold
chilly
hot
tepid
sweltering
cold
chilly
Word Sorts
Open Sort
Categories are not given.
thorax
abdomen
wing
adult
egg
pupa
antennae
larva
head
leg
Closed Sort
Parts
Stages
Closed Sort
Parts
Stages
thorax
abdomen
wing
head
leg
antennae
pupa
egg
larva
adult
List-Group-Label
Possible Sentences
connotation
denotation
sociogram
distinguishing feature
distributed practice
open sort
Dushanbe
What can we do to increase
children’s vocabularies in
Title I schools?
1. Make vocabulary a schoolwide goal
 Amend your plan.
 Establish testable goals.
 Raise consciousness.
 Communicate expectations.
2. Provide professional development
 Focus on research-based methods.
 Ensure ties to actual materials.
 Provide follow-up to aid implementation.
3. Establish teacher study groups
 Organize groups by grade level.
 Provide time for discussion.
 Reward participation.
 Encourage administrator participation.
 Select resource books.
4. Consider supplemental and
intervention programs
 Tie their use to assessments.
 Establish guidelines for use.
 Locate product reviews.
http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu
http://www.fcrr.org
mmckenna@georgiasouthern.edu
http://www.georgiasouthern.edu/
~mmckenna