Human Adjustment
John W. Santrock
Chapter 3:
The Self, Identity,
and Values
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Chapter Outline
The Self
Identity
Values
Religion
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Learning Goals
1. Discuss self-concept and self-esteem.
2. Describe what identity is and how it is formed.
3. Summarize important aspects of values.
4. Characterize the role of religion in people’s lives.
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THE SELF
Self-Concept
Self-Esteem
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Self-Concept
Self-concept = individual’s perception of his or her
abilities, personality, and other attributes
 Self-concept consists of our thoughts and feelings
about our own characteristics
 Rogers argues that congruence between real self and
ideal self results in adjustment
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Self-Discrepancy
 E. Tory Higgins identified 3 domains of self:
– Actual self - your representation of attributes you believe or
you actually possess
– Ideal self - your representation of attributes that ideally you
would like to possess
– Ought self - your representation of attributes you believe
you should possess
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Self-Discrepancy Theory
 Self-discrepancy theory - problems occur when
representations from different viewpoints or from
different domains are inconsistent, or discrepant
– Discrepancies between actual and ideal selves create
dejection-relation emotions (depression)
– Discrepancies between actual self and ought self create
agitated emotions (anxiety)
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Figure 3.1 The Relation of Discrepancies in Actual,
Ideal, and Ought Selves to Depression and Anxiety
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Possible Selves
 Possible selves - conceptions of what we might
become, including what we would like to become and
what we are afraid of becoming
– Include hoped-for and dreaded selves
– Serve role in self-evaluation
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Possible Selves
 Individualistic cultures - possible selves that reflect
distinctiveness of individual
 Collectivist cultures - possible selves that strengthen
the groups to which they belong
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Self-Esteem
Self-esteem = overall evaluation of one’s self-worth
or self-image
 People have both a general level of self-esteem and
fluctuating degrees of self-esteem related to specific
domains of life
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Examples of Domains of Life
– academic competence
– work competence
– social or relationship competence
– sexuality
– athletic competence
– physical attractiveness
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Self-Esteem
 There is controversy about whether self-esteem varies
according to the age of the individual
 Correlations between self-esteem and:
–
–
–
–
school performance
job performance
initiative
happiness
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Adjustment Strategies
for Increasing Self-Esteem
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1. Identify your sources of self-esteem and what is
causing low self-esteem
2. Face a problem and try to cope with it
3. Seek emotional support
4. Take responsibility for your self-esteem
5. Look for opportunities to achieve
6. Explore resources to improve your selfunderstanding
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Narcissism
 Narcissism - self-centered and self-concerned
approach when dealing with others
 Narcissists are:
– excessively self-centered and self-congratulatory
– unaware of their actual selves and how others perceive
them
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Review - Learning Goal 1
– What is self-concept? What are some important
components of self-concept?
– What is self-esteem? What are some characteristics of selfesteem?
– What are some good strategies for enhancing self-esteem
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IDENTITY
Erikson’s View
The Four Statuses of Identity
Developmental Changes
Ethnic Identity
Gender and Identity
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Erikson's View
Identity = a sense of integration of self in which
different parts come together in a unified whole
 Identity versus identity confusion - stage during
adolescence and emerging adulthood when individuals
are faced with deciding who they are and where they
are going in life
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Erikson’s View
 Youths enter a psychosocial moratorium during which
they experiment with personalities and roles as they
search for an identity
 Psychological moratorium - gap between childhood
security and adult autonomy
– In the United States, vocational identity is especially
important
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Four Statuses of Identity
 James Marcia’s classification based on extent of their
crisis and commitment
– Crisis - period of identity development during which
individual is choosing among meaningful alternatives
– Commitment - personal investment in an identity
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Four Statuses of Identity
 Marcia proposed four identity statuses:
– identity diffusion - has not yet experienced identity crisis
and has not made any commitment
– identity foreclosure - has made a commitment but has not
experienced an identity crisis
– identity moratorium - experiencing identity crisis but has
not made commitment to an identity
– identity achievement - has undergone identity crisis and
made a commitment
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Figure 3.3
Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity
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Developmental Changes
 Some experts believe the main identity changes take
place in late adolescence or emerging adulthood,
rather than in early adolescence
 College upperclassmen are more likely to be identity
achieved than are freshmen or high school students,
although many college students are still wrestling with
ideological commitments
 Individuals often follow “moratorium-achievementmoratorium-achievement” cycles
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Ethnic Identity
 Ethnic identity - enduring aspect of self that includes:
– sense of membership in ethnic group
– attitudes and feelings related to membership
 During adolescence and emerging adulthood ethnic
minority individuals consciously confront their ethnic
identity
 Many ethnic minority individuals have a bicultural
identity
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Ethnic Identity
 Helms’ model of ethnic identity development:
– Stage 1 - pre-encounter (prefer dominant society’s values)
– Stage 2 - encounter (realize they will never belong to
mainstream)
– Stage 3 - immersion/emersion (immerse themselves in
minority culture / experience discontent)
– Stage 4 - internalization/commitment (integrate personal
and culture identity / enact identity)
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Gender and Identity
 Erikson believed that males have a stronger vocational
identity, females a stronger social identity
 Gender differences appear to be disappearing
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Review - Learning Goal 2
– What is Erikson’s view of identity?
– What are the four statuses of identity?
– What are some developmental changes in identity?
– What is ethnic identity? What are some important aspects of
ethnic identity?
– What role does gender play in identity?
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VALUES
Exploring Values
College Students’ Values
Meaning in Life
Sociocultural Perspectives on Values
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Exploring Values
Values = standards we apply to determine the
worth of things, ideas, or events
 Value conflict - clash between values that encourage
opposing actions
 Ethnic minority individuals can have value conflict
between their values and values of mainstream culture
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Adjustment Strategies
for Clarifying Your Values
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1. Imagine your own funeral - what will people say?
2. If you had unlimited time and resources, what would
you do?
3. Review your most important values.
4. How do your values relate to physical, social,
mental, and spiritual needs?
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College Students’ Values
 Over the past two decades, U.S. college students have
shown an increased concern for personal well-being
and a decreased concern for the well-being of others
 An increasing number of students are showing an
interest in volunteer or community service work
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College Students’ Values
 Service learning - form of education that promotes
social responsibility and service to the community
 Participation in service learning is related to:
– higher grades
– increased goal setting
– higher self-esteem
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Meaning in Life
 Viktor Frankl believes that examining the finiteness of
our existence leads to exploration of meaning in life
 Baumeister argues that a quest for a meaningful life
involves four main needs:
– need for purpose
– need for values
– need for sense of efficacy
– need for self-worth
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Sociocultural Perspectives on Values
 Some critics argue that Americans are too concerned
with self-fulfillment and personal identity
 Zen Buddhism emphasizes living in the present
moment by focusing on the task at hand
Morita therapy = Zen Buddhist therapy emphasizing
accepting feelings, knowing one’s purposes, and
doing what needs to be done
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Review - Learning Goal 3
– What are values? Why is it important to clarify your values?
– What are college students’ values? What is service learning
and how does it influence people?
– What are some guidelines in searching for meaning in life?
– What are some sociocultural perspectives on values?
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RELIGION
The Scope of Religion in People’s Lives
Religion and Health
Religious Coping
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The Scope of Religion in People’s Lives
 Religion plays important role in the lives of many
people around the world
 Majority of Americans say they are religious
– Females show a stronger interest in religion than males
– Americans are becoming less committed to a particular
religious denomination and show a declining faith in
mainstream religious organizations
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Figure 3.5 Level of Spirituality
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Religion and Health
 Individuals in religious mainstream generally enjoy a
positive or neutral link between religion and physical
health
 Religious thoughts can play role in maintaining hope
and stimulating motivation in recovery from an illness
or disease
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Religious Coping
 Religion helps some people cope more effectively with
stress
 Positive religious coping strategies include:
– expression of a sense of spirituality
– secure relationship with God
– belief that there is meaning to be found in life
– sense of spiritual connectedness with others
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Review - Learning Goal 4
– What is the scope of religion in people’s lives?
– How is religion linked to health?
– What are some important aspects of religious coping?
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