Memory
Encoding, Storage &
Retrieval
Memory
Persistence of learning over time via the
storage and retrieval of information
3 Processes of Memory
Encoding
Processing of information into the memory
system
Storage
Retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval
Process of getting information out of memory
4 Memory Stores
1. Sensory Memory
Immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system
2 types
Echoic - auditory
• 3-4 seconds
Iconic - visual sensory memory
• Visual information
• 1/4 second
Iconic Sensory Memory
4 Memory Stores
2. Working Memory
Processing of briefly
stored information
3. Short Term
Activated memory
holds +/- 7 items
~30 seconds
4. Long Term Memory
Relatively permanent
and limitless
storehouse of the
memory system
Memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
A Simplified Memory Model
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Encoding
Storage
Long-term
memory
Retrieving
Storage
Storage
Encoding: Automatic v. Effortful
Automatic Processing
Quick, unconscious encoding of incidental
information
Space & time
Well-learned information
Word meanings
We can learn automatic processing
Reading backwards
Encoding: Automatic v. Effortful
Effortful Processing
Slower, requires attention & conscious effort
Rehearsal
Conscious repetition of information
Maintain it in consciousness
Encode it for storage
Encoding: Automatic v. Effortful
Ebbinghaus rehearsed nonsense syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
More times practiced on Day 1, the fewer
repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Ebbinghaus
Time in
minutes
taken to
relearn
list on
day 2
20
15
10
5
0
8
16
24
32
42
53
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
64
Encoding
Spacing Effect
Distributed practice yields better long term
retention than massed practice
Serial-Position Effect
Recall best for info presented first & last
First - more rehearsal time
Last - recency effect
Serial Position Effect
Immediate recall
Percentage
of
words
recalled
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Later recall
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Position of word in
list
9
10
11 12
What Do We Encode?
Semantic Encoding
Encoding of meaning/words
Acoustic Encoding
Encoding of sound/words
Visual Encoding
Encoding of picture images
Encoding & Retrieval
Type of encoding impacts retrieval
Participants recalled word after:
Capital letters?
Rhyme with train?
Fit in sentence?
Encoding & Retrieval
Encoding & Retrieval
Imagery/Mnemonics
Mental pictures
Powerful aid to effortful processing
Vivid imagery and/or semantic encoding
Encoding & Retrieval
Rehearsal
Maintenance
Elaborative
Memory drug
video
Organization
Chunking enhances memory
Items into familiar, manageable units
Occurs automatically
1776149218121941
ID # (3-2-4)
Acronyms
MVEMJSUNP - My very energetic mother just sat
upon nine pins
Storage - Long Term Memory
How does storage work?
Lashley (1950) - specific brain cites? - NO!
Rats learn maze - Lesion cortex - Test memory
Memory retained
Gerard (1953) - electrical activity? - NO!
Hamsters learn maze
Cease brains electrical activation (freeze)
Revive and memory retained
Storage - Long Term Memory
‘…memories are more of a spiritual than a
physical reality. You try to touch them, and
they turn to mist and disappear.’
Storage - Long Term Memory
Synaptic & NT changes
Long-term Potentiation
Increase in synapse’s firing potential after S
• More NT release & receptor cites (possibly)
• Neuron loops or networks
Drugs that block NTs impairs memory
Alcohol impacts serotonin and memory
ECT or concussion impairs memory
Boxer, depressed patient
Storage - Long Term Memory
Flashbulb Memories
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
Challenger explosion/Princess Diana/JFK Jr.
WHY?
Stress hormones boost learning/retention
Hippocampus & amygdala structurally close
Rehearsal
Long Term Memory
Subsystems
Explicit Memory
Memory of facts/experiences known
Hippocampus- helps move information from
STM to LTM
Clive Wearing video (Mind 24)
Retrieval
Recall
Retrieve learned information not in awareness
Fill in the blank test
Recognition
Identify learned information
Multiple choice test
Retrieval Cues
Reminders of forgotten information
Guides to where to look for info
Mood/emotion (SDM)
Moods are retrieval cues
Learn happy recall best when happy
Context Effects
Memory works better in the context of original
learning
Retrieval Cues
Percentage of
words recalled40
 Heard words on land or
under water
Recall best when context
same for learning & recall
30
20
10
0 Water/
land
Different
contexts
Land/
water
Water/ Land/
water land
Same
contexts
Forgetting
Encoding failure
Information never enters the memory system
Attention is selective
Cant encode it ALL
Storage Decay
Decay of physical memory trace
Synapse/NT degradation over time
Neural networks atrophy if unused
Retrieval failure (storage problem)
Forgetting
Sensory memory - the senses momentarily
register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are
both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some items
are altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory depending on interference, retrieval cues
moods and motives, some things get
retrieved, some don’t
Information bits
Memory Construction
Memory does not work like VCR
We filter information, fill in missing pieces,
and construct memories during encoding,
storage and retrieval
Perceptions of the past
Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event
Memory Construction
Depiction of actual accident
Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
memories when
questioned
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed
into
each other?”
Memory
construction
False Memories
False memories can be created in some
people (Loftus)
Vivid imagery, journals
Repressed memories of abuse
No reliable memories pre 3 years of age
Summary: Memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Perceptions of the past