Chapter 1
An Introduction to Rhetoric
Key Elements of Rhetoric
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Rhetoric: The art of analyzing all the choices
involving language that a writer, speaker,
reader, or listener might make a situation so
that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful
and effective; the specific features of texts,
written or spoken, that cause them to be
meaningful, purposeful, and effective for
readers or listeners in a situation.
Key Elements of Rhetoric
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Rhetorical Choices: The particular choices a
writer or speaker makes to achieve meaning,
purpose, or effect.
Rhetorical situation: the convergence in a
situation of exigency (the need to write),
audience and purpose.
Rhetorical Triangle: more on this later.
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Rhetoric is always situational: it has a context
– the occasion or the time and place it was
written or spoken – and a purpose or goal that
the speaker or writer wants to achieve.
Rhetoric Man is effective
because he has an occasion
and a goal or purpose. Think
about it, without them, what use
is he? He just looks like a rocker
from the 80s.
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When we read any text, we ask about the
context in which it was written.
Then we consider the purpose.
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Is the speaker trying to
 win agreement?
 persuade us to action?
 evoke sympathy?
 make us laugh?
 inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate?
Sometimes context arises from
current events or cultural bias.
 What is bias?
 Ex. Someone writes about freedom of speech in
a community that has experienced hate graffiti
must take that context into account and adjust
the purpose of the piece so as not to offend the
audience.
 Think of some examples where you would
consider the context of what you have to say.
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Here it is, the Aristotelian rhetorical triangle
Speaker
Audience
Subject
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Then you evaluate what you already know
about it
What others have said about it
And what kind of evidence or proof will
sufficiently develop your position.
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Aristotle called the person that a writer took on
as a speaker as a persona.
A persona is the character the speaker creates
when he or she writes or speaks
This depends on the context, purpose, subject
and audience.
Are you speaking as a poet, comedian, scholar,
expert, critic, citizen, etc.
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Before you speak, you must consider your
audience.
What do they know about your topic?
What do they feel about your topic?
How will you communicate with them to listen
to you?
Speaker
Audience
Subject
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Ethos- the credibility of the speaker
Logos-the reasoning or logic in the speaker’s
argument.
Pathos- Emotion of the speech (not necessarily
the speaker’s, but more explanation in a
minute.)
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Ethos = Ethical appeal
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Logos = Logical appeal
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Pathos = Emotional appeal
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Ethos = Ethics=Ethical appeal
If someone is ethical they have credibility.
Ethical appeal has to do with the speaker. Is
the speaker ethically credible?
This does not mean whether or not the speaker
is a good person.
It means the speaker appeals to the audience as
a credible source.
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If a speaker wants to talk to you about
adolescent alcoholism, what kind of speaker
would have the most ethical appeal?
If a teacher wants to teach you about algebra,
what kind of teacher would have the most
ethical appeal?
Acknowledge a counterargument.
to anticipate objections or opposing views.
 You agree (concede) that an opposing
argument may be true, but then you deny
(refute) the validity of all or part of the
argument.
 THIS STRENGTHENS YOUR ARGUMENT!!!
It shows you really thought about it.
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Pathos = emotion = emotional appeal
Does the writing appeal or create emotions in
the reader?
Too much emotional appeal is rarely effective,
but if a skilled writer tells an anecdote or uses
certain figurative language, he or she can create
an emotional appeal to the audience.
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An argument that appeals only to the emotions
is by definition weak—it’s generally considered
propaganda.
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When you write or analyze, consider how the
essay and its individual paragraphs or sections
are arranged.
HOW A WRITER STRUCTURES THE
ARGUMENT WITHIN A FRAMEWORK
DEPENDS UPON HIS OR HER INTENDED
PURPOSE AND EFFECT
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Read pages 13-25
Label your book Arrangement/ Organization
Read and take notes on (you can work in groups
of three and do three each)
The Classical Model
Narration
Description
Process Analysis
Exemplification
Comparison Contrast
Classification and Division
Definition
Cause and Effect
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The introduction – introduces the audience to
the subject. In latin, the word exordium means
“beginning a web.” No matter how long, it
piques the interest of the reader. This is where
the writer often establishes his or her ethical
appeal. Why is this important in this spot?
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The narration provides factual information and
background material on the subject at hand.
The level of detail a writer uses depends upon
the audience’s knowledge of the subject. This
often appeals to emotions because often the
writer tries to make the audience have an
emotional response to the importance of an
issue.
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The confirmation, usually the major part of the
text, includes the development or the proof
needed to make the writer’s case—the nuts and
bolts of an essay. This contains the most
specific and concrete detail in the text. This has
the strongest appeal to logos.
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The refutation addresses the counterargument.
It is often a bridge between the writer’s proof
and conclusion. This is often placed near the
end, but it may be placed anywhere in the
writing.
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The conclusion brings the essay to a close. It
can be one or several paragraphs. Here the
writer usually appeals to emotions and
reminds the reader of the ethos established
earlier. Do not repeat what came before, but
make sure the last words and ideas of a text are
those the audience is MOST LIKELY TO
REMEMBER
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Narration
Writers often use narration as a way to enter
into their topics. Everyone loves a good story.
(Remember that!)
Rebecca Walker tells a story about her son to
lead into her explanation of why she put
together the anthology Putting Down the Gun
(p. 412).
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Description
Description emphasizes the senses by painting
a picture of how something looks, sounds,
smells, tastes, or feels.
Description is often used to establish the mood
of the piece. Mood plays in to the message and
persuasion.
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Process analysis
This explains how something works, how to do
something or how something was done, We
use this when we explain how to bake bread,
set up an Excel spreadsheet, etc.
The key to successful process analysis is clarity:
it’s important to explain a subject clearly and
logically, with transitions that mark the
sequence of major steps, stages, or phases of
the process
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Examples
Providing a series of examples—facts, cases or
instances—turns a general idea into a concrete
one.
You can use one long one or several in a row.
You are familiar with someone saying “Let me
give you an example.”
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Aristotle taught that examples are a type of
logical proof called induction.
That is a series of specific examples leads to a
general conclusion.
Read an excerpt from “I know Why the Caged
Bird Cannot Read”by Francine Prose.
Identify her argument.
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Comparison and Contrast: juxtaposing two
things to highlight their similarities and
differences.
This is used often on examinations where you
have to discuss subtle differences.
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It is important for readers to sort material into
major categories.
Answer “What goes together and why?”
You may be asked to analyze and essay that
offers categories or to apply them.
Most of the time a writer’s task is to develop
his or her own categories and to find a
distinctive way of breaking down a larger idea
into parts.
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Often a definition is used to clarify a term.
In discourse, however, often a writer will take
an entire essay to establish what is a definition
of something.
“In Search of the Good Family” by Jane
Howard. She analyzes ten characteristics that
define a family.
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This depends upon crystal clear logic.
It is often signaled by a why in the title or
opening paragraph.
In “I know Why the Caged Bird Cannot Read”
Francine Prose sets out what she believes are
the causes for high school student’s lack of
enthusiasm for reading.
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Check Diagnostic Test answers for at
least 1-23. Write four facts you
learned.
Finish notes
Read pg. 26-27 and take notes
Be able to answer the question: What
causes rhetoric to miss the mark
(think speaker, audience, subject,
context).
Typically a 3 part statement
 Major premise, minor premise, and conclusion
 All humans are mortal.
 Mrs. Sloat is a human.
 Mrs. Sloat is mortal.
Be careful that is logical and not generalized.
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Ad Hoc Argument- Latin for “To the Thing” or
“For it’s Purpose”
Adding to your argument on the spot to make
it valid
Fallacy: Person A: "No Scotsman puts sugar on
his porridge.“ Person B: "But my uncle Angus
likes sugar with his porridge.“ Person A: "Ah
yes, but no true Scotsman puts sugar on his
porridge."
 Circular
reasoning
 Based on a faulty
assumption
 Circular reasoning is bad.
Therefore, it is not good.
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Bellringer- Complete the logos, pathos, and
ethos sheet
Read “Our Barbies, Our Selves”
Identify the parts of the Rhetorical Triangle
Identify the context and purpose
Identify the writer’s thesis
Does she present a counterargument? If so,
what?
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Pick 10 of the terms below
On one side write the term
On the other side, write key terms from the
definition or draw a picture
Rhetoric, rhetorical triangle, context, purpose,
subject, speaker, audience, ethos, logos, pathos,
counterargument, classical model, narration
pattern of development, description pattern of
development, process analysis, exemplification,
comparison/contrast, cause and effect
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Take the quiz
Re-read “Our Barbies, Our Selves”
Annotate (take notes/add observations) and
highlight
Define all college level words
Which patterns of development/organizational
choices did she use?
Highlight/mark examples of logos, pathos, and
ethos
Do you agree with the Ken paragraph? Why or
why not?