ERT 457 – DESIGN OF AUTOMATION
SYSTEMS
Mechanical Actuation
Systems
Mechanical systems
 Devices which can be considered to be motion converters in that they
transform motion from one form to some other required form.
 Eg:Transform linear motion into rotational motion and vice versa.
 Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack-
and-pinion, chains, belt drives, etc.
 Eg: rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to linear
motion.
 Many of the actions which previously were obtained by the use of
mechanism are, however, often nowdays being obtained, as a result of a
mechatronics approach by the use of microprocessor systems.
Mechanical systems
 Mechanisms still, however, have a role in mechatronics systems. For
example, the mechatronics system in use in an automatic camera for
adjusting the aperture for correct exposures involves a mechanism for
adjusting the size of diaphragm.
 Others function:
 Force amplification – given by levers.
 Change of speed – given by gears.
 Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another – timing
belt.
 The term kinematics is used for the study of motion without regard to
forces. When we consider just the motions without any consideration of
the forces or energy involved then we are carrying out a kinematic analysis
of the mechanism.
Mechanical systems
 Types of Motion
Translation motion
Movement which can be resolved
into components along one or more
of the 3 axes.
Rotational motion
Rotation which has components
rotating about one or more of the
axes.
Mechanical systems
 Freedom and Constraints
 An importance aspect in the design of mechanical elements is the
orientation and arrangement of the elements and parts.
 A body that is free in space can move in three, independent, mutually
perpendicular directions and rotate in three ways about those directions.
 It is said to have six degree of freedom. The number of degree of
freedom is the number of components of motion that are required in
order to generate the motion.
Mechanical systems
 Freedom and Constraints
 Figure (a) shows a joint with just this one translational degree of
freedom.
 Figure (b) shows a joint which has one translational degree of freedom
one rotational degree of freedom.
Kinematic Chains
 Each part of a mechanism which has motion relative to some other part is
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termed a link.
A rigid body which has two or more points of attachment to other links is
termed nodes.
Each link is capable of moving relative to its neighboring links.
A joint is a connection between the connected links at their nodes and
which allows some motion between the connected links.
Levers, cranks, connecting rods and pistons, sliders, pulleys, belts and
shafts are all examples of links.
(a) with two nodes
(b) with three nodes
(c) with four nodes
Kinematic Chains
 A sequence of joints and links is
known as kinematic chain.
 For a kinematic chain to transmit
motion, one link must be fixed.
Movement of one link will then
produce
predictable
relative
movements of the others.
 It is possible to obtain from one
kinematic chain a number of different
mechanisms by having a different link
as the fixed one.
 The design of many mechanisms are
based on two basic forms of kinematic
chains, the four-bar chain and the
slider-crank chain.
Fixed frame
Slider
Connecting
rod
Crankshaft
The reciprocating motion of a piston is
transformed into rotational motion of a
crankshaft on bearings mounted in a fixed
frame.
Kinematic Chains
 The Four-bar Chain
 Consists of 4 links connected to give 4 joints about which turning can
occur.
Double-lever mechanism
Lever-crank mechanism
Double-crank mechanism
Kinematic Chains
 The Four-bar Chain
 Example of a mechanism can be used to advance the film in a cine
camera.
 Link 1 rotates, so the end of link 2 lock into a sprocket of the film, pulls
it forward before releasing and moving up and back to lock into the next
sprocket..
Cine film advance mechanism
Kinematic Chains
 The Four-bar Chain
 Some linkages may have toggle positions. These are positions where the
linkage will not react to any input from one of its links.
 Figure below illustrates such a toggle, being the linkage used to control
the movement of the tailgate of a truck so that when link 2 reaches the
horizontal position no further load on link 2 will cause any further
movement.
 There is another toggle position for the linkage and that is when links 3
and 4 are both vertical and the tailgate is vertical.
Kinematic Chains
 The Slider-crank Mechanism
 Consists of a crank, a connecting rod and a slider.
The position sequence for the
links in a slider-crank mechanism
Cams
 Cam is a body which rotates or oscillates and in doing so imparts a
reciprocating motion to a second body called follower, with which it is in
contact.
 The length of times spent for the rotation is depending on the shape of the
cam.
Part that lowers the
follower,
its
profile
determining how quickly
the cam follower will fall.
Part that allows the
follower to remain at the
same lever for a significant
period of time and where
its circular with a radius
that does not change.
Part that drives the
follower upwards, its
profile determining how
quickly the cam follower
will lifted.
Cams
 The cam shape required to produce a particular motion of the follower will
depend on the shape of the cam and the type of follower used.
Displacement diagram for an eccentric cam
Cams
 Figure below shows the types of follower displacement diagrams that can
be produced with two other different shaped cams and either point or
knife followers.
Heart shape
(constant rate,
uniform speed)
Pear shape
(rise and fall
symmetrically)
Cams
 Figure below shows a number of examples of different types of cam
followers.
Point
Knife
Roller
Lower friction than
sliding contact but can
be more expensive
Cams
 Figure below shows a number of examples of different types of cam
followers.
Sliding and oscillating
Flat
Often used because –
cheaper and can be
made smaller than
roller follower.
Mushroom
Gears
 Gear trains are mechanisms which are very widely used to transfer and
transform rotational motion. They are used when a change in speed or
torque of a rotating device is needed. For example, the car gearbox enables
the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with
the engine power available.
(a) Parallel gear axes, (b) axes inclined to one another, (c) axial teeth,
(d) helical teeth, (e) double helical teeth
Gears
 Two meshed gears.
 Gear ratio,
ωA = number of teeth on B = dB
ωB
number of teeth on A
dA
Angular velocity
Diameter
Gears
 Gear trains – a series of intermeshed gear wheels.
 Simple gear train – used for a system where each shaft carries only one gear
wheel.
 Ratio of the angular velocities,
G = ωA = ωA
ωC
ωB
x
ωB
ωC
Gears
 Compound gears trains – two wheels are mounted on a common shaft.
 Ratio of the angular velocities,
G = ωA = ωA
ωD
ωB
x
ωB
ωC
x
ωC = ωA
ωD
ωB
x
ωC
ωD
 For the input and output shafts to be in line, we must also have for the
radii of the gears.
rA + rB = rD + rC
Gears
 Rotational to translational motion – two intermeshed gears with one
having a base circle of infinite radius. Such gear can be used to transform
either linear motion to rotational motion or rotational motion to linear
motion.
 Eg:The rack-and-pinion.
 Linear velocity,
Revolution
Time
v = nL / t = fL
Distance moved parallel to the screw axis
Belt and Chain Drives
 Pair of rolling cylinders with the motion of one cylinder being
transferred to the other by a belt.
 Belt drives use the friction that develops between the pulleys
attached to the shaft and the belt around the arc of contact in order
to transmit a torque.
 The transmitted torque is due to the differences in tension that occur
in the belt during operation. This difference results in a tight side
and a slack side for the belt.
Belt and Chain Drives
 If the tension on the tight side is T1, and a slack side is T2, then with
pulley A as a driver,
Torque on A = (T1 – T2) rA
 Pulley B as a driver,
Torque on B = (T1 – T2) rB
 Since the power transmitted is the produce of the torque and the
angular velocity, and since the angular velocity is v/rA for pulley A
and v/rB for pulley B, then for either pulley we have
Power = (T1 – T2) v
Belt and Chain Drives
 As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt drives have
the advantage that the length of the belt can easily be adjusted to suit a
wide range of shaft to shaft distance and the system is automatically
protected against overload because slipping occurs if the loading exceeds
the maximum tension that can be sustained by frictional forces.
 If the distance between shafts is large, a belt drive is more suitable than
gears, but over small distances gears are to be preferred.
 Different size pulleys can be used to give a gearing effect. However, the
gear ratio is limited to about 3 because of the need to maintain an
adequate arc of contact between the belt and pulleys.
Belt and Chain Drives
 Figure below shows two types of reversing drives.
 With both forms of drive, both side of the belt comes into contact with
the wheels and soV-belts or timing belts cannot be used.
Cross belt
Open belt
Belt and Chain Drives
 Types of belts
 Flat.
 Has rectangular cross section.
 Has an efficiency about 98% and produces little noise.
 Round.
 Has a circular cross section and is used with grooved pulleys.
Belt and Chain Drives
V
 V – belts are used with grooved pulleys and are less efficient that flat belts but a
number of them can be used on a single wheel and so give multiple drive.
 Timing.
 Require toothed wheels, having teeth which fit into the grooves on the wheel.
 Unlike the other belts, timing belt does not stretch or slip and consequently
transmits power at a constant angular velocity ratio.
 The teeth make it possible for the belt to be run at slow or fast speeds.
Bearings
 Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with
another, either by rotating or sliding, the resulting frictional forces
generate heat which wastes energy and results in wear.
 The function of bearing is to guide with minimum friction and
maximum accuracy the movement of one part relative to another.
 Give suitable support to rotating shaft.
 The term thrust bearing is used for bearings that are designed to
withstand forces along the axis of a shaft when the relative motion is
primarily rotation.
Bearings
 Plain journal bearings
 Used to support rotating shafts which are loaded in a radial direction (journal –
shaft).
 Consists of an insert of some suitable material which is fitted between the shaft and
the support.
 Rotation of the shaft results in its surface sliding over that of the bearing surface.
 The bearing may be a dry rubbing bearing or lubrication.
Bearings
 Ball and roller bearing
 With this type of bearing, the main load is transferred from the rotating shaft to its
support by rolling contact rather than sliding contact.
 A rolling element bearing consists of 4 main elements : an inner race, an outer race,
the rolling element either balls or rollers, and a cage to keep the rolling elements
apart.
 The inner and outer races contain hardened tracks in which the rolling elements
roll.
Bearings
 Ball and roller bearing
 Types of ball bearings.
a) Deep-groove
b) Filling-slot
c) Angular contact
d) double-row
e) Self-aligning
e) Thrust, grooved race
Bearings
 Ball and roller bearing
 Types of roller bearings.
a) Straight roller
b) Taper roller
c) Needle roller