Bahan Kajian MK. Landuse Planning
INTEGRATED
COASTAL
MANAGEMENT
Smno.pdip.ppsfpub.des2013
…….Ekosistem Pesisir…..
Objectives and goals of the responsible coastal
planning and management
1. Optimize benefits from coastal and
marine resources, specifically for local
communities
2. Identifikasi Penggunaan yang diperlukan
3. Meminimumkan Konflik
4. Mencegah Degradasi Lingkungan
5. Bagaimana caranya?
Konsep ICM
Penilaian Sumberdaya:
comprehensive inventories of coastal
natural and human resources (e.g.
physical and biological data, resource
uses, cultural heritage, traditional land
uses and activities, etc.);
includes long term in depth biocomplexity
research studies;
Konsep ICM
Pendugaan Dampak
assessing the coastal zone vulnerability to
various activity impacts; interactions
between uses and resources;
a tool to help making decisions and evaluate
options for the mitigation and
environmentally sound management (e.g.
spatial and use conflict analysis, GIS models);
based on the best available knowledge and
acknowledging uncertainties;
Konsep ICM
Policy and regulatory framework:
a basic tool for training and education, and for
local community participation in decision
making process; based on analysis of existing
institutional and legal mechanisms develop
comprehensive policy framework to address
coastal issues;
Konsep ICM
Pendugaan osial-Budaya & Ekonomi
understanding of socio-economic incentives at the
local level in suggesting alternative incomegenerating programs;
the simpler the national rules the better they are
understood and followed on the local levels;
the capacity of the community to regulate its own
activities and uses;
to enforce local rules is an important determinant of
perceived management success;
Konsep ICM
Implementasi:
how to apply science and develop and
implement the BMPs?
Comprehensive BMPs are ‘living documents’
open to revision, expansion;
provide consistent national standards and
practices for implementation;
Konsep ICM
Monitoring dan Evaluasi:
assess cumulative effects of changes and
update management program elements to
reflect changing needs and circumstances;
multidisciplinary data as a ‘feedback loop’
evaluation of our activities and their impacts;
Still the question is how?
And what is the driving force
and approach in coastal
management?
My general premise is that “the environment
sets the limits for responsible and sustainable
development".
Why?
Understanding ecosystem's "function, health
and resilience" is an imperative for successful
application of adaptive coastal management.
http://alpha.es.umb.edu/faculty/af/frankic.html
Site suitability
and use conflict analysis:
an optimal allocation for user functions
• Finding suitable sites for existing and
potential use/activity in the marine and
coastal environment is one of the most
critical challenges facing coastal planning
and management.
Analytical Approach :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Optimal sites are selected based on environmental suitability
analysis and GIS models. Environmental parameters required
for potential activity sites were selected and generic protocol
was developed. Often a modified version of the activity protocol
has to be created and applied based on available and spatially
explicit data.
GIS use-suitability modeling: application of available
environmental suitability indicators from developed protocols;
includes evaluation of the model with existing activity sites.
GIS use-conflict modeling and analysis: identification of exiting
and potential uses,and use conflicts.
Characterization of management issues and options. Providing
outcome scenarios and recommendations, identifying gaps to
help guide future scientific research, monitoring and decisionmaking processes.
Phase One:
1. The most important step is to identify the
environmental conditions necessary for each
use/activity to succeed.
2. Based on extensive literature review and present
knowledge, the environmental use suitability indicators
(parameters or criteria), for activity to be long-term
sustainable, can be identified and derived.
3. Note: ESRI ArcInfo and ArcView software were used to
write algorithms to model protocols, and perform GIS use
conflict modeling and analysis.
Protokol :
Marina Suitability Indicators
Suitability Indicators
Water quality
Fecal coliforms
Cfu/100 ml
Salinity (%◦)
Desirable
Undesirable
Closed for direct marketing of shellfish; no
potential for future productivity
200
Approved, seasonally approved for
shellfish harvesting
> 200
Unsuitable for shellfish growth
Suitable for shellfish growth
Nitrate mg/l
1
Phosphate mg/l
0.1
Suspended solids/ sediments
(mg/l)
Mex. Wave height (m)
10
< 0.5
> 0.5
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)
>5
<2
Current/exposure
< 1 knot
> 1 knot
Bathymetry (m)
>1
<1
Proximity to natural or improved
channels
Threatened or endangered
species and habitats
Designated shellfish grounds
< 50 feet to navigational channel
> 50 feet
Absent
No present or planned private lease or
public ground within affected area
Does not require dredging
Present
Private lease or public oyster ground
in proximity
Requires frequent dredging
Suitable buffer could be maintained around
marine site
Not presently used for recreational, tourism
uses, fishing, crabbing, etc.
Absent
Cannot maintain suitable buffer area
Dredging
Adjacent wetlands
Existing use of site
SAV
Shoreline erosion
Finfish habitat
Shoreline protected by natural or planted
riparian vegetation
Unimportant area for spawning or nursery
for any commercial or recreational species
Presently used for recreational
activities and fishing, crabbing
Present
No shoreline stabilization
Important spawning and nursery area
Protokol :
Tourism Suitability
Indicators
Environmentally
Suitable Indicators
Beach area capacity
(m²/person)
Sea Temp. (C)
for swimming
Water supply
(l/day/person )
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)
Water quality (E.coli)
Drinking
Swimming (*)
Suspended solids/ sediments (mg/l)
Excellent
6-8
6
> 25
200 – 250
100 - 200
< 100
40 - 50
100 - 200
 50 (MPN/100 ml)
 200 (MPN/100ml)
>5
0 100
Bottom type
Current/exposure
Sheltered bays
Bathymetry (m)
0-5
Shoreline slope (%)
topography
Beach area access
(buffer zone 2000m)
2-5
Sewage systems
(Waste water treatment)
Protected areas,
Nature Reserves, MPAs
Cultural Heritage
Preservation
Food Supply, local mariculture,
autochthon products
Sustainable Infrastructure & landscape
Design
Poor
8 -10
>5
Sand, small gravel
Energy supply
Good
Within buffer zone
Sufficient, solar and
alternative resources
present
Present
Present
Present
Sufficient and present on
site
Present
mud
Protokol :
Shellfish Aquaculture
Suitability Indicators
General
On-bottom
oyster
h. clam
s. clam
pH
7.0-8.5
6.75-8.75
Temp. (C)
20-28
Opt. 15-25
Opt.21-31
Opt. 10-20
Salinity (%◦)
10-35
10-35
18-20 ideal
10-25
Suspended sediments
(mg/l)
Dissolved oxygen
(mg/l)
Bathymetry (m)
15
10 - 25
>5
>3.64
0-2
0-2
0-2
Bottom type
Solid, oyster reefs
Firm, and sandy
Soft, muddysand
Areas of activity
Mainly subaqueous
fixed structures
(piers)
Mainly eastern shore
Accessibility
(nearest boat ramp)
Other physical
attributes
Regulatory Factors
0-2
6.75-8.75
500-5000 meters
Prefer riparian areas, and
wetlands;
Exclude condemned areas;
Exclude SAV habitats
Species type
native
Fecal coliforms
Cfu/100 ml
Nitrate mg/l
14
Phosphate mg/l
0.08
Dissolved oxygen
(mg/l)
Turbidity NTU
>5
Buffer zone
≥30 meters*
0.8
< 25
Shellfish aquaculture suitability criteria (modified
protocol)
Ranking
Optimal
Suitable
Unsuitable
Hard clams
Oysters
=< 2 meter depth
SAV absent
>= 20 ppt
outside condemned areas
0-2 meter depth
SAV absent
> 7ppt
outside condemned areas
=< 2 meter depth
15-20 ppt
SAV absent
inside condemned areas
0-2 meters depth
SAV absent
> 7 ppt
inside condemned areas
SAV present
< 15 ppt
SAV present
< 7 ppt
Tahap Ke Dua
1. GIS use-suitability modeling : Identification of
areas in which environmental conditions for each
specific use are found
2. This includes spatial analysis (aerial photos and
satellite images); integration of GIS coverages
(data layers) for e.g.: temp, salinity, bathymetry,
water quality, substrate types, benthic biocenoses,
slope, hydrology, geology-pedology, critical
habitats and protected species/areas, etc.
3. GIS application of available environmental
suitability indicators from developed protocols
and evaluation of use suitability models;
Site suitability analysis for oyster aquaculture in Chesapeake Bay,
Virginia
Source: VIMS/CCRM, A. Frankic
Existing
Aquaculture
Optimal
%
#
Suitable
%
#
Unsuitable
%
#
Oyster
commercial
32 sites
72%
23
19%
6
9%
3
Hard clams
99 sites
82%
81
3%
3
15%
15
Tahap Ke Tiga:
1. Identification and mapping of coastal, marine and land
uses
2. Performing the GIS use conflict analysis and modeling
(21 models); The goal is to identify areas that, although
suitable for aquaculture on the basis of suitable
environmental assessment (from Phase Two), may be
less desirable due to incompatible uses that are present
or planned (tourism, recreation, fishing, protection,
agriculture, etc.)
Hard
clams
199297
65051
SAV historic
area
potential for
restoration
5903
Oyster
404589
138336
25179
Model
Suitable
area
(Acres)
Aesthetic
conflict
area
Dredging
area for boat
access
Agriculture
(shoreline
length/km)
388
1406
662
1404
Phase Four:
1. Identification of all possible management issues that
could be caused by or related to aquaculture
development in certain area (includes local community
knowledge and participation);
2. Assessment of existing policies, regulations and laws
related to e.g. aquaculture, identify and characterize
management issues and conflicts;
3. Analysis will incorporate socio-economic
considerations, and each management issue will be
presented with adequate management options and
recommendation scenarios;
Use conflicts and management issues:
1. Aquaculture dan SAV
2. Aquaculture dan Penggunaan lainnya atas
Kolom Air
3. Landuse sekitarnya yang tidak sesuai,
4. Gangguan Kualitas Air.
Adjacent Coastal
activity/use
restrial:
idential
riculture commodity
. crops, tomato farms;
stock;
anic farms)
ustry
wage power plants
rina
vigation (potential conflict
rywhere)
rs
Management issues
Water quality
(NPS urban runoff, storm water runoff,
wastewater runoff)
Socio-economic issues – aesthetics;
Water quality
(agricultural runoff, pesticides,
nutrients, erosion, sedimentation)
1) priority use zones
2) areas with multiple uses
If priority area for aquaculture no permits
for other activities;
Storm water permitting
Retention ponds; Irrigation ponds; creating
riparian/wetland buffers; Erosion and
sediment control;
Water quality recommendations (classes for
aquaculture through regulation – tier I-III)
Outcom
Suitable if buffer
Socio-economic c
analysis (advanta
disadvantages of
options)
Wastewater discharge,
Sediment contamination
Out falls; elevated water temp.
Buffers
Designating priority use zones
To be determined
environmental an
economic assessm
Water quality
(wastewater discharges)
200 m buffer (match regulations, ½ mile
DOH)
Suitable dependin
quality
Physical damage
Buffer - 100 feet for oysters
Suitable for aqua
outside buffer
Recreational fishing and boating;
Water quality
Buffer area in residential priority zones
Permit required for >100 feet in active lease
Suitable for aqua
aches(public); and bare areas
potential
ches
Water quality
(pathogen contamination)
reation:
c. fishing, boating
hauling)
d harvest
f courses
In vicinity of residential areas; water
quality issue;
tected areas
Management options
Physical/spatial issue
Habitat restoration/protection:
Clam (brood stock area)
2 m in-shore buffer;
buffer maybe reduced with public facilities
Designating priority use zones
No wake zones
Buffer zones
Buffers: 100 feet for SAV
Suitable or optim
adequate facilitie
Bathing lease (1/2
Suitable for aqua
Vicinity is a plus/
outside buffer are
1. Economy (production, services, goods, income, profit)
2. Society (social, political and cultural systems)
3. Environment (natural resources, water, air, soil, raw
materials, health)
This “triple bottom line’ is used as a framework for
measuring and reporting corporate performance
against economic, social and environmental
parameters (John Elkington)
http://www.sustainability.com/
NEXT STEPS:
Identification and implementation of socioeconomic indicators for the integrated coastal
area management.
Table with 32 suggested indicators: Source:
UNESCO/IOC/COOP, Halifax Meeting, Canada February 2004:
www.phys.ocean.dal.ca/~lukeman/COOP/hfx_april_04.html
1
Resident Population
(census data)
Population Density
17
Pesticide Use in Watershed
18
19
4
Land Use/Land Cover
Patterns/Composition
Employment in Industry Sectors
5
% Population with Potable Water
21
6
% Population with Internet Access
22
Coastal Energy Production
(% of National Production by type)
Level/Value of Commercial Fish
Landings by harvest area, gear type, species,
Artisanal
Fishing
weight, and
value;Effort by harvest area, value,
species and type;
Number/Value of Recreational
Fishing Days
Seafood Consumption Patterns gram/person/day
7
Change in User Conflict
23
8
Property Values
24
9
Income/wealth Distribution
25
10
% Altered Coast
26
11
Public Access Points/km of coastline
27
12
28
15
Water dependent use industry/
coastal industry
Value of Products dependent on
Coastal Habitats
Non-Use Values of Coastal
Habitat(Bequest/Existence/Option)
% Population Served by Wastewater
16
Fertilizer Use in Watershed
32
2
3
13
14
20
29
30
31
Seafood International Trade
Value/Quantity/Terms & Direction
Groundwater Extraction
Number of Tourists (% of National)
per day or # of bed nights
Number/Attendance at Recreational
Bathing Beaches
Number of Shipping Vessels Entering/Transiting
Coastal Waters
Aquaculture – Total Hectares, by type, weight,
value and species type
Value Change in Seafood Due to
Chemical Contamination
Value Change in Seafood Due to
Pathogenic/Toxic Contamination
Social mitigation cost of Invasive Species (public
& private)
Number of Beach Closings
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
VARIABLE
Sea level
Water temperature
Currents
Changes in bathymetry
Salinity
Surface waves
Sediment grain size
Benthic biomass
Changes in shoreline position
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved inorganic nutrientsN, P, Si
Phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll)
Attenuation of solar radiation
Faecal indicators
Sediment organic content
Phytoplankton species diversity
Nekton species diversity
Coloured dissolved organic matter DSOM
Seabird abundance
VARIABLE
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Fisheries: landings and effort
Primary production
Total organic C and N
Neutral red assay
Incident solar radiation
Total suspended solids
Cholinesteraze (pesticides)
Cytochrome p450 (e.g. oil)
Metallothionein (trace metals)
Zooplankton biomass
Eh in sediment
Particulate organic C and N
Benthic species diversity
Zooplankton species diversity
Biological oxygen demand
pH
Seabird diversity
Nekton biomass
. Types of coastal ecosystem.
The coastal
ecosystems
have their own
distinctive
features,
plants and
animals, and
resource
management
issues.
http://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/Environment/Natural-resources/coast/Coastal-ecosystems/
.. Management of coastal ecosystems
http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/about-the-reef/how-the-reefs-managed/coastal-ecosystems
.. Mangrove Ecosystem Services, Threats and Management
Priorities
http://www.fishconserve.org/campaigns/coastal-2100/mangrove-conservation/
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Evaluasi Lahan
In the first part of the land evaluation, the qualitative
part, the soil map , an agro-climatic map and a map with
the govermental unit were combined, which resulted in a
map with a number of Land Evaluation Units (LEU's), each
comprising a unique combination of soil unit, climatic
region and govermental unit.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Subsequently, these LEU's were confronted with the soil and
climatic requirements of three types of crops: grass, cereals
and root crops.
The requirements were defined in terms of e.g. texture,
slope, drainage, rooting depth, salinity and temperature.
The definition of the requirements was based on the
workability of the soil with appropriate machinery and the
minimum soil conditions allowing crop growth.
The criteria were increasingly severe for the three crop
types. From the qualitative selection procedure it follows
that (part of) a LEU is either suitable or unsuitable for
mechanized crop cultivation.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
After this qualitative part of the land evaluation, the
production potentials of the suitable LEU's under
water-limited and potential conditions were
calculated with the crop growth simulation model
WOFOST.
This model simulates growth, development and yield
of a field crop, and the water balance of the soil,
under defined weather and soil conditions.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Input-output combinations
General.
As stated before, in an explorative study current agricultural practices are not
the proper starting point. One could consider the in/output tables of the
`best farmers' in a certain region as the criterion for the possibilities of all
farmers in that region. However, this might imply specific structural
differences between regions e.g. differences in education or farm sizes, that
may have disappeared at the end of the time horizon of a study.
The production ecological concepts and the most efficient application
techniques of the various resources required for a crop to grow were applied
to quantify production activities in all regions .
Differences in management and business structure are therefore not taken
into account. This assumption implies that within the time-frame of the
study, there could be no longer any differences in education level and
industrial structure between regions in the system. It should be judged
whether this is plausible.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Arable cropping and grassland.
All input-output relations for arable crops were defined for the cropping system
level. All crop rotations were defined using expert knowledge. The most heavily
demanding crop in the rotation determined the area suitable for that crop rotation.
Three production orientations were defined for arable cropping and for grass:
1. A Yield Oriented Agriculture (YOA),
2. An Environment Oriented Agriculture (EOA) and
3. A Land use Oriented Agriculture (LOA).
For the YOA and EOA activities were defined both with and without (rain fed)
irrigation.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Arable cropping and grassland.
For the quantification of the input-output relations in YOA, the results of the
quantitative land evaluation derived with crop growth simulation models were used
as a starting point.
The simulated yields were corrected for inevitable harvesting losses and losses due
to soil-borne diseases as a result of too narrow crop rotations. The required inputs to
realize the outputs were estimated by using expert knowledge.
To arrive at an economic optimum some substitution of agro-chemical by labor
and/or capital is permitted.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Arable cropping and grassland.
The production activities in an Environment Oriented Agriculture were defined by
means of literature and expert knowledge. In these activities the use of pesticides
was lowered with ca 70 % on an average (compared to the use in YOA).
Part of the pesticides were substituted by mechanical forms of crop protection, but
the decreased use of pesticides also resulted in some 20 % yield loss.
Finally for grass and wheat crops activities in a Land use Oriented Agriculture were
defined. No pesticides were used in these activities and soil productivity was low.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Livestock activities.
Livestock uses feed derived from arable crops or roughage (e.g. grass
and silage maize).
Basically the feed requirements of livestock could be expressed in
some nutritional components, i.e. Metabolizable Energy (ME),
Digestible Crude Protein (DCP), and (for ruminants) in structural
material because of the need for fibrous material.
So in the LP-model, both the nutritive value of arable products and
roughage as the feed requirements of livestock could be expressed in
ME, DCP and structural material.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Nature.
Besides this quantitative definition of agricultural
activities, the preferred locations for nature conservation
and development were shown in a map.
This technical information, based on a set of criteria, is
also used as an input for the scenarios in a post model
analysis.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Constraints
Besides area and labor constraints a set of water constraints and a set of manure
constraints were included in the EC model. The water constraints quantified the
upper limits on water that can be used for irrigation for each of the regions. These
upper limits were determined by precipitation, soil water pools and run-off. The
manure constraints were also defined for each region. In these constraints it is
required that all manure produced by cattle in a region is used for arable farming or
roughage production in that same region.
Since industrial processing activities were also included in the model, not only
demands for primary products like milk or sugar beets were modelled, but also those
for products like cheese, butter or sugar.
In quantifying the demand for agricultural products, two trade situations were
distinguished, one with free trade and one with autarky, and two diets, one
according to current feeding customs and one with more animal products. The
population growth was estimated at less than 0.1 % per year.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Policy views and objective functions
A number of policy views can be distinguished.
The first policy view is focusing on free market and trade: economic productivity and
minimization of costs are the prevailing characteristics.
The second policy view aims at regional development: to maintain employment and
promote income in the agricultural sector are the dominant aims.
The third policy puts the highest priority on nature development and landscape
conservation: here the conservation of the landscape and development of natural
conditions have the highest priority. Agricultural production should be restricted to
the smallest area possible.
The fourth policy view aims at protection of the environment: the negative side
effects of agriculture should be minimized, which is translated in minimization of
pesticide and artificial fertilizer use.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Policy views and objective functions
The policy views are quantified in eight objectives, two agricultural objectives, two
socio-economic objectives and four environmental objectives .
Nature and landscape objectives turned out to be very difficult to implement.
Objectives related to nature and landscape are site- or location-specific, making it
difficult to define a general rule that models these objectives.
Therefore ex post analyses were performed to provide information on the fulfilment
of these objectives.
For instance by designing a map concerning the nature development or conservation
and by confronting the map with a nature and landscape scenario.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Objectives incorporated in the EC-study (Rabbinge & Van Latesteijn, 1992)
class of objective
agricultural
socio-economic
environmental
objective
1
maximize soil productivity
2
minimize costs of agricultural production
3
maximize total employment in agriculture
4
minimize regional decrease in agricultural employment
5
minimize loss of nutrients per unit of acreage
6
minimize loss of nutrients per unit of product
7
minimize input of pesticides per unit of acreage
8
minimize input of pesticides per unit of product
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Land use scenarios
In the study area, there are four scenarios have been developed by
putting different priorities and bounds to the various objective
functions.
Scenario A: Free market and free trade.
In the free trade scenario agriculture is treated as any other economic
activity. Production takes place at the lowest possible costs. Starting
point is a free world market for agricultural products with minimal
restrictions on social services and environment.
The policy view dominating in this scenario, was close to the policy
view of the USA in the negotiations for the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Skenario Landuse
Scenario B: Pengembangan Wilayah.
1. In this scenario regional employment within the area has the
highest priority.
2. Income generation for farmers within the agricultural sector is of
main importance.
3. The policy view dominating in this scenario can be seen as
continuation and extension of today's policy.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Skanerio Landuse
Scenario C: Bentang Lahan & Alam.
1. In this scenario highest priority is given to maintain
existing nature areas as much as possible.
2. A spatial separation between nature habitats and
agricultural areas is created. Next of areas strictly
restricted for nature conservation, areas are chosen for
human activity.
3. This scenario represents the policy view of nature
conservation organizations.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Skenario Landuse
Scenario D: Perlindungan Lingkungan.
1. The most important policy view in this scenario is to prevent alien
substances from entering the environment. Different from the
former scenario the main aim is not to preserve or stimulate
certain plant and animal species, but to protect soil, water and air.
2. There is no spatial separation of nature and agricultural areas, but
rather integration.
3. Agriculture can be practised everywhere, but under strict
regulations for environmental protection. This scenario represents
the policy view of integrated agriculture.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Each of these four scenarios results in a different land use,
employment, loss of nitrogen and use of pesticides. However, there
are some results that are common for the four scenarios.
All scenarios show a drastic decline in use of land for agricultural
purposes.
The total area in the four scenarios varies between 26 and 92 million
hectares, whereas currently 130 million hectares are used for
agricultural purposes.
Another result is that 1.5 to 2.9 million man years would suffice for the
total agricultural production in stead of the 6 million man years that
are involved in the primary production at present .
Further the loss of nitrogen and the use of pesticides can be reduced
dramatically .
For instance for pesticides 21 to 154 million kg of active ingredient
would suffice in stead of more than 400 million kg at present.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Interactive procedures and land-use scenarios
generated
In a first round the `playing field' was determined by optimizing each
of the objective functions in subsequent runs, without putting
(heavy) restrictions on the other objective functions.
Subsequently, the different scenarios were generated by tightening
the most relevant objective functions of a policy view. For policy view
1 the agro-technical objectives are most relevant.
In policy view 2 the socio-economic objectives have a high relevance,
and in policy view 3 and 4 the environmental objectives have a high
priority.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Analisis Sensitivitas
1. It was analyzed whether changes in goals for the different
objectives result in large changes of the regional allocation of
agricultural production. The allocation turned out to be very
sensitive for small changes in the goals for the costs of agricultural
production. This opens the possibility for influencing the allocation
of agriculture over the regions.
2. The aggregate model results for the entire areas, i.e. the values for
the objective functions, are far less sensitive to changes in
parameters.
3. Finally trade-off between various objectives were investigated: the
gain in one objective relative to the corresponding loss in another
objective.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
. Coastal Landuse analysis using multiple goal linear
programming…
Sensitivity analysis
In the evaluation phase of the study the following issues were considered:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The conflicts between objectives concerning landscape and nature conservation
with strong spatial aspects on the one hand and the four land use scenarios on
the other hand.
Common differences between the scenarios and the actual situation.
Differences in values for the objective functions between the different
scenarios: scope for policy.
Trade off between the different objectives.
Differences in agricultural production between situations with self-sufficiency
and free trade.
The effects of a change in dietary patterns on agricultural production.
http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/Sahel/RAP31/RAP31B.HTM
The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services
EDWARD B. BARBIER, SALLY D. HACKER, CHRIS KENNEDY, EVAMARIA W. KOCH, ADRIAN C. STIER,
AND BRIAN R. SILLIMAN
Ecological Monographs, 81(2), 2011, pp. 169–193
@ 2011 by the Ecological Society of America
Degradasi global muara dan ekosistem pesisir ( ECE) mempengaruhi
sejumlah manfaat penting , atau jasa-jasa ekosistem .
Suatu hal yang penting untuk menilai jasa-jasa ECE, seperti perlindungan pesisir dan hubungan
habitat perikanan , adalah bahwa fungsi ekologis yang mendasari jasa-jasa ini bervariasi secara
spasial dan temporal .
Konektivitas di antara habitat ECE juga memiliki implikasi penting untuk menilai fungsi ekologis
yang mendasari jasa-jasa kunci ekosistem , perlindungan pantai, pengendalian erosi , dan relasi
habitat perikanan .
Rencana aksi diperlukan untuk melindungi dan / atau meningkatkan nilai jangka panjang jasa-jasa
ECE . Karena konektivitas ECE di seluruh gradien darat-laut juga mempengaruhi penyediaan jasa
ekosistem tertentu , maka pengelolaan seluruh kawasan diperlukan untuk mempertahankan efek
sinergis tersebut .
Elemen kunci lain dari rencana aksi meliputi penelitian kolaboratif ekologi dan ekonomi untuk
menilai jasa ECE , meningkatkan kerangka kelembagaan dan hukum untuk manajemen ,
mengontrol dan mengatur kegiatan ekonomi yang merusak , dan mengembangkan opsi restorasi
ekologi .
Valuasi ekonomi barang dan jasa ekosistem. UVB adalah radiasi ultraviolet-B
dari sinar matahari, yang dapat menyebabkan kanker kulit. Angka ini
diadaptasi dari NRC (2005).
Managing Coastal & Ocean
for
Human well-being
Setting the scene: People depend on oceans
61
Valuing Ecosystem Services
62
Establishing a scenario analysis
2. Valuation framework:
A hybrid approach of economic valuation
Valuing coastal
ecosystem goods
and services
Un-priced
benefits
(non-market)
Market priced
benefits
Wood Forest
Products (WFPs)
Climate Regulation
(i.e. stocked
carbon in forest)
64
Recreation
Passive use values
(e.g. existence value)
2. Valuation framework:
A hybrid approach of economic valuation
Valuing coastal
ecosystem goods
and services
Un-priced
benefits
(non-market)
Market priced
benefits
Fisheries/Tourism
Provisioning
services
Market price
analysis
Climate Regulation
Coastal Protection
Regulating
services
65
Avoided
damage costs
Recreation
Cultural
services
Passive use values
(e.g. existence value)
Revelead and stated
preference methods
Meta analysis and
Value transfer
Methodology: meta-analysis of non-market valuations
ln( yi )  a  bS X Si  bW X Wi  bC X Ci  ui
Valuation study variables (Xs)
Valuation method
(stated, revealed preference)
Welfare measure
(Marshallian CS, equivalent variation, compensating variation)
Year of primary data
yi = unit value of coastal zones for recreational activities,
standardized to 2003 $/ha/year (PPP)
66
4. Methodology:
meta-analysis of non-market valuations
ln( yi )  a  bS X Si  bW X Wi  bC X Ci  ui
Valuation study variables (Xs)
Site variables (XW)
Valuation method
(stated, revealed preference)
Ecosystem size
Welfare measure
(Marshallian CS, equivalent variation,
compensating variation)
Ecosystem type
(coral reef, beach, other)
Year of primary data
Ecosystem service
(fishing, non-extractive)
Protection level
(protected area, no protection)
4. Methodology:
meta-analysis of non-market valuations
ln( yi )  a  bS X Si  bW X Wi  bC X Ci  ui
Valuation study variables (Xs)
Site variables (XW)
Context variables (XC)
Valuation method
(stated, revealed preference)
Ecosystem size
GDP per capita
(at countrylevel)
Welfare measure
(Marshallian CS, equivalent
variation, compensating
variation)
Ecosystem type
(coral reef, beach, other)
Year of primary data
Protection level
(protected area, no protection)
Ecosystem service
(fishing, non-extractive)
Population density
(georeferenced)
Marine biodiversity index
(Shannon index: georeferenced)
Anthropogenic pressure
(nutrient concentration: georeferenced)
Human development index
(low, medium, high: georeferenced)
Accessibility
(travel time to nearest city:
georeferenced)
Interpretation of econometric results
1. Coral reefs and sandy beaches provide the highest
recreational values.
2. Income effects and proximity to the market of
potential visitors significantly affect values.
3. A high level of anthropogenic pressure and scarce
accessibility have a negative impact.
4. Sites with high marine biodiversity and low level of
human development are valued highly.
69
Discussion of value transfer results
1.
High values in Mediterranean
Europe, UK, California, Florida
and US East Coast determined by
high accessibility, population
density and income effects and
despite high development and
pressure.
2.
Similarly, high population density
in various areas in India and
China positively influence values
despite the high anthropogenic
pressure.
3.
Scarce accessibility and low
population density along most of
the Australian and South
American coast result in
relatively low values.
Rekomendasi
1. Non-market values of coastal recreation are substantial and
should be taken into account in policy decision for the
development or preservation of coastal habitats &
environment damage assessments.
2. Recreation values are highly dependent upon a number of
contextual variables including level of development of a
certain region, accessibility to the site, population density,
biodiversity richness, and level of integrity of the ecosystem.
3. This implies that from the perspective of recreation values,
habitat conservation may focus on areas which are of high
ecological values (e.g., rich in biodiversity) but low economic
values because located in remote areas with low accessibility.
Governance is key to managing oceans
72
Related References:
• UNESCO, 2003. (Strategic Design Plan for Coastal Ocean Observing
Module.
http://ioc.unesco.org/goos/docs/GOOS_125_COOP_Plan.pdf
• UNESCO, 2003. A Reference Guide on the use of Indicators for
Integrated Coastal Management.
http://ioc.unesco.org/icam/files/Dossier.pdf
• EC, 2000: Driving force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response
(DPSIR) Model
• “How is your MPA doing?” A guidebook of natural & social
indicators for evaluating MPAs management effectiveness;
IUCN/WWF/NOAA, 2004 www.iucn.org/bookstore
• Frankic, A. 2003. ICZM Plan for Croatia with special focus on
aquaculture. Republic of Croatia, Ministry for environmental
protection and physical planning.
http://ccrm.vims.edu/staff/Adriaticaquaculture.pdf