Response to Intervention
Getting Started With
‘Response to Intervention’:
A Guide for Schools
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
January 2006
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Response to Intervention
RTI Workshop Goals…
As a result of this workshop, you will:
Better understand the ‘Response to
Intervention’ (RTI) model
Know where to find resources on the
Internet to start RTI in your school
Understand the next steps that your
school should take to implement RTI
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Response to Intervention
Discussion: Read the quote below:
“The quality of a school as a learning
community can be measured by how
effectively it addresses the needs of
struggling students.”
--Wright (2005)
Do you agree or disagree with this statement?
Why?
Source: Wright, J. (2005, Summer). Five interventions that work. NAESP Leadership Compass, 2(4) pp.1,6.
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Response to Intervention
What is ‘Response to Intervention’ (RTI)?
'Response to Intervention' is an emerging approach to the
diagnosis of Learning Disabilities that holds considerable
promise. In the RTI model:
• A student with academic delays is given one or more
research-validated interventions.
• The student's academic progress is monitored frequently
to see if those interventions are sufficient to help the
student to catch up with his or her peers.
• If the student fails to show significantly improved academic
skills despite several well-designed and implemented
interventions, this failure to 'respond to intervention' can be
viewed as evidence of an underlying Learning Disability.
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Response to Intervention
What are advantages of RTI?
• One advantage of RTI in the diagnosis of educational
disabilities is that it allows schools to intervene early to
meet the needs of struggling learners.
• Another advantage is that RTI maps those specific
instructional strategies found to benefit a particular
student. This information can be very helpful to both
teachers and parents.
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Response to Intervention
What previous approach to diagnosing
Learning Disabilities does RTI replace?
Prior to RTI, many states used a ‘Test-Score Discrepancy Model’ to
identify Learning Disabilities.
• A student with significant
academic delays would be
administered a battery of
tests, including an
intelligence test and
academic achievement test(s).
• If the student was found to
have a substantial gap between a higher IQ score and lower
achievement scores, a formula was used to determine if that gap
was statistically significant and ‘severe’.
• If the student had a ‘severe discrepancy’ [gap] between IQ and
achievement, he or she would be diagnosed with a Learning
Disability.
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Response to Intervention
Learning Disabilities: Test Discrepancy Model
“Traditionally, disability is viewed as a
deficit that resides within the
individual, the severity of which might
be influenced, but not created, by
contextual variables.” (Vaughn & Fuchs,
2003)
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Response to Intervention
Limitations to the ‘test-score
discrepancy model’ (Gresham, 2001):
• Requires chronic school failure BEFORE remedial/special education
supports can be given.
• Fails to consider that outside factors such as poor or inconsistent
instruction may contribute to a child's learning delay.
• A ‘severe discrepancy’ between test scores provides no useful
information about WHY the student is doing poorly academically.
• Different states (and even school districts within the same state) often
used different formulas to diagnose LD, resulting in a lack of uniformity
in identifying children for special education support.
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Response to Intervention
Why is RTI now being adopted by schools?
Congress passed the revised Individuals With Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) in 2004.
• This Federal legislation provides the guidelines that
schools must follow when identifying children for special
education services.
• Based on the changes in IDEIA 2004, the US Department
of Education (USDE) updated its regulations to state
education departments. The new USDE regulations:
– Explicitly ALLOW states to use RTI to identify LD
– FORBID states from forcing schools to use a ‘discrepancy
model’ to identify LD
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Response to Intervention
IDEIA 2004-05 Federal (US Dept of Education)
Regulations: What do they say about LD diagnosis?
§ 300.307 Specific learning disabilities.
(a) General. A State must adopt criteria for determining whether a child
has a specific learning disability…. the criteria adopted by the State—
(2) May not require the use of a severe discrepancy between
intellectual ability and achievement for determining whether a child
has a specific learning disability as defined in § 300.8;
[‘Discrepancy’ Model]
(3) Must permit the use of a process that determines if the child
responds to scientific, research-based intervention…[‘RTI’ Model]
NOTE: [bracketed comments added]
Source: IDEA (2004, 2005). Proposed Regulations from US Department of Education (§ 300.307)
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Response to Intervention
What does RTI look like when applied to an
individual student?
A widely accepted method for determining whether a
student has a Learning Disability under RTI is the ‘dual
discrepancy model’ (Fuchs, 2003).
– Discrepancy 1: The student is found to be performing
academically at a level significantly below that of his or her
typical peers (discrepancy in initial skills or performance).
– Discrepancy 2: Despite the implementation of one or more welldesigned, well-implemented interventions tailored specifically for
the student, he or she fails to ‘close the gap’ with classmates
(discrepancy in rate of learning relative to peers).
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Response to Intervention
Avg Classroom Academic
Performance Level
Discrepancy 1: Skill Gap
Discrepancy 2:
(Current
Gap in Rate of
Performance Level)
Learning (‘Slope
Target
of Improvement’)
Student
‘Dual-Discrepancy’: RTI Model
of Learning Disability (Fuchs 2003)
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Response to Intervention
The steps of RTI for an individual case…
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Under RTI, if a student is found to be performing well
below peers, the school will:
Estimate the academic skill gap between the student and
typically-performing peers
Determine the likely reason(s) for the student’s
depressed academic performance
Select a scientifically-based intervention likely to improve
the student's academic functioning
Monitor academic progress frequently to evaluate the
impact of the intervention
If the student fails to respond to several well-implemented
interventions, consider a referral to Special Education
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Response to Intervention
1.
Estimate the academic skill gap between the
target student and typically-performing peers:
There are three general methods for estimating the
‘typical’ level of academic performance at a grade level:
•
•
•
Local Norms: A sample of students at a school is screened in an
academic skill to create grade norms (Shinn, 1989)
Research Norms: Norms for ‘typical’ growth are derived from a
research sample, published, and applied by schools to their own
student populations (e.g., Shapiro, 1996)
Criterion-Referenced Benchmarks: A minimum level, or
threshold, of competence is determined for a skill. The benchmark
is usually defined as a level of proficiency needed for later school
success (Fuchs, 2003)
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Response to Intervention
Baylor Elementary School : Grade Norms: Correctly Read Words Per Min : Sample Size: 23 Students
Group Norms: Correctly Read Words Per Min: Book 4-1: Raw Data
31 34 34 39 41 43 52 55 59 61 68 71 74 75 85 89 102 108 112
115 118 118 131
Group
Converted
LOCALNorms:
NORMS
EXAMPLE: Twenty-three 4th-grade students
to
Box-Plot
were
administered oral reading fluency Curriculum-Based
Median (2ndthQuartile)=71
Measurement passages at the 4 -grade level in their school.
In their current
number form, these3data
are not easy to
rd Quartile=108
1st Quartile=43
interpret.
Billy=19
So the
school converts them into a visual display—a box-
plot —to show the distribution of scores and to convert the
scores to percentile form.
Hi Value=131
Low Value=31
When Billy, a struggling reader, is screened in CBM reading
fluency,
he
0
20shows
40 a SIGNIFICANT
60
80 skill
100gap when
120 compare
140 to160
his grade peers. Correctly Read Words-Book 4-1
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Response to Intervention
Research Norms: Example
Norms for ‘typical’ growth are derived from a research sample,
published, and applied by schools to their own student
populations
Estimates of ‘Typical’ [‘Instructional’] Reading Fluency Level Ranges
By Grade Based on a Research Sample (from Shapiro, 1996)
Grade
Correctly Read Words Per Min
Reading Errors
1
40-60
Fewer than 5
2
40-60
Fewer than 5
3
4
70-100
70-100
Fewer than 7
Fewer than 7
5
6
70-100
70-100
Fewer than 7
Fewer than 7
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Response to Intervention
Criterion-Referenced Benchmarks: Example
The benchmark represents a level of proficiency needed for
later school success. A good example of a commonly used set
of benchmarks for reading are those that were developed for
use with the DIBELS [Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early
Literacy Skills].
Using the DIBELS benchmarks, for example, 3rd-grade
students are at ‘low risk’ for reading problems if they reach
these reading-fluency goals:
– Start of School Year: 77 Correctly Read Words Per Min
– Middle of School Year: 92 Correctly Read Words Per Min
– End of School Year: 110 Correctly Read Words Per Min
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Response to Intervention
2.
Determine the likely reason(s) for the student’s
depressed academic performance:
There can be several possible underlying reasons why a
student is doing poorly in an academic area. It is crucial
to determine the reason(s) for poor performance in order
to select an appropriate intervention:
•
•
•
Skill Deficit: The student lacks the necessary skills to perform the
academic task.
‘Fragile’ Skills: The student possesses the necessary skills but is
not yet fluent and automatic in those skills.
Performance (Motivation) Deficit: The student has the
necessary skills but lacks the motivation to complete the
academic task.
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Response to Intervention
3.
Select a scientifically-based intervention likely to
improve the student's academic functioning:
Any intervention idea chosen for the student should be
backed by scientific research (e.g., research articles in
peer-reviewed professional journals) demonstrating that
the intervention is effective in addressing the student’s
underlying reason(s) for academic failure.
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Response to Intervention
4.
Monitor academic progress frequently to
evaluate the impact of the intervention:
Under RTI, interventions are monitored frequently (e.g.,
weekly) using valid and reliable measures that are
sensitive to short-term gains in student performance:
•
•
Measures for Basic Academic Skills: Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM)
probes are short, timed assessments that have been developed to measure
phonemic awareness, oral reading fluency, math computation, writing, and
spelling skills (Shinn, 1989).
Measures for Classroom Academic and General Behaviors:
–
Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRCs): These customized teacher rating
forms allow the instructor to evaluate the student’s behaviors each day
(Chafouleas et al. 2005).
–
Direct Observation: An external observer visits the classroom to observe
the student’s rates of on-task and academically engaged behaviors.
(Shapiro, 1996)
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Response to Intervention
5.
If the student fails to respond to a series of
several well-implemented interventions, consider a
referral to Special Education.
In the RTI model, the student would be referred
for a special education evaluation if:
•
A series of research-based interventions have been
attempted
There is documentation that the interventions were
carried out as designed (treatment/intervention integrity)
Progress-monitoring data shows that the student failed
to meet the goal set for his or her improvement (that is,
the student shows a ‘discrepancy in rate of learning’
relative to grade-peers).
•
•
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Response to Intervention
How can a school restructure to support RTI?
The school can organize its intervention efforts into 3 levels, or Tiers,
that represent a continuum of increasing intensity of support.
(Kovaleski, 2003; Vaughn, 2003). Tier I is the lowest level of
intervention and Tier III is the most intensive intervention level.
Tier I
Universal intervention: Available to all students
Example: Additional classroom literacy instruction
Tier II
Individualized Intervention: Students who need additional
support than peers are given individual intervention plans.
Example: Supplemental peer tutoring in reading to increase
reading fluency
Tier III
Intensive Intervention: Students whose intervention needs
are greater than general education can meet may be referred
for more intensive services.
Example: Special Education
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Response to Intervention
RTI: School-Wide Three-Tier
Framework (Kovaleski, 2003; Vaughn, 2003)
Tier I
‘School-Wide
Screening &
Group
Intervention’
Tier II
Tier III
‘NonResponders’ to
Tier I Are
Identified &
Given
‘Individually
Tailored’
Interventions
(e.g., peer
tutoring/fluency)
‘Long-Term
Programming for
Students Who
Fail to Respond
to Tier II
Interventions’
(e.g., Special
Education)
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Response to Intervention
Putting The RTI Model into Practice:
5 Recommended ‘Next Steps’ for Schools
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Response to Intervention
What do schools have to do differently
under the RTI model?
To implement RTI effectively, schools must develop a
specialized set of tools and competencies, including:
• A structured format for problem-solving.
• Knowledge of a range of scientifically based interventions
that address common reasons for school failure.
• The ability to use various methods of assessment to
monitor student progress in academic and behavioral
areas.
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
1. Adopt evidence-based intervention
strategies. Academic interventions will
have a higher chance of success if they are
based on sound empirical research.
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
Web resources for evidence-based intervention
strategies
•
Big Ideas in Beginning Reading (U of Oregon):
reading.uoregon.edu
•
What Works Clearinghouse (US Dept of Education):
www.w-w-c.org
•
Intervention Central: www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
2. Train staff to collect frequent progress-monitoring
data. Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) can be
used to assess a student’s accuracy and speed in basicskill areas such as reading fluency, math computation,
writing, spelling, and pre-literacy skills.
Teachers also can measure the behavior of struggling
learners on a daily basis by using classroom Daily
Behavior Report Cards: simple, convenient rating forms
to track a child’s work completion, attention to task,
compliance with teacher directions, and other behaviors
that influence learning.
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Response to Intervention
CBM Reading Fluency Probes: Example
Examiner Copy
Student Copy
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Response to Intervention
CBM Reading Fluency Monitoring Chart: Example
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Response to Intervention
Daily Behavior Report Card: Example
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
Web resources for progress-monitoring
• CBM Warehouse:
www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/inter
ventions/cbmwarehouse.shtml
• The Behavior Reporter (Behavior Report Card
Generator):
http://www.jimwrightonline.com/php/
tbrc/tbrc.php
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
3. Develop building-level intervention programs to
address common academic concerns. When faced
with large numbers of students with shared academic
concerns (e.g., reading fluency), schools can create a
building-level intervention program to meet this need.
For example, older children could tutor younger students
by using simple, research-based techniques to boost
their tutees’ reading fluency (Wright & Cleary, 2006).
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Response to Intervention
Kids as
Reading
Helpers: A
Peer Tutor
Training
Manual
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
Web resource for a building-level intervention
program: peer-tutoring/reading fluency
• Kids as Reading Helpers Peer Tutoring
Manual:
www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/
interventions/rdngfluency/prtutor.shtml
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
4. Establish a building intervention team. Made up of
teachers and support staff, the intervention team can
help referring teachers design feasible strategies for
struggling students.
Intervention teams also foster a sense of collegiality and
mutual support among educators, promote the use of
evidence-based interventions, and assist busy teachers
in carrying out intervention plans.
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Response to Intervention
School-Based Intervention
Teams: QuickGuide
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Response to Intervention
SBIT QuickGuide
& Other Training
Materials/Forms
Available for Free
Download
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Response to Intervention
Sample Intervention Team Model:
SBIT Consultative Steps
•
Step 1: Assess Teacher Concerns
•
Step 2: Inventory Student Strengths and Talents
•
Step 3: Review Background/Baseline Data
•
Step 4: Select Target Teacher Concerns
•
Step 5: Set Academic or Behavioral Goals
•
Step 6: Design an Intervention Plan
•
Step 7: Select Method for Progress Monitoring
•
Step 8: Plan How to Share Information with the
Student’s Parent(s)
•
Step 9: Review the Intervention and Monitoring Plans
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
Web resources on building intervention teams
•
School-Based Intervention Teams (Syracuse City
Schools):
http://www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/
interventions/sbit.shtml
•
Screening to Enhance Educational Performance: STEEP
(Joe Witt, Ph.D.):
http://www.joewitt.org/steep.htm
•
Instructional Consultation Teams (Sylvia Rosenfield, Ph.D.)
http://www.icteams.umd.edu/
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Response to Intervention
Implementing RTI: Next Steps
5. Align Current Intervention & Assessment
Efforts With 3-Tier Model. Many schools already
have intervention & assessment initiatives in place.
Mapping out those initiatives, standardizing their
content, and tying them to the appropriate level of
the 3-tier intervention framework can help schools
to better coordinate intervention programming
while avoiding duplication of services.
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Response to Intervention
Tier I
Tier II
Tier III
Inventory all universal programs in the school
intended to prevent student academic or
behavioral failure
Inventory programs or supports (e.g., Intervention
Team, cross-age peer tutoring, Math or Reading
Remedial Lab) that can be individualized and
matched to students with emerging academic or
behavioral difficulties
Inventory the most intensive programs (e.g., Special
Education services, Wrap-Around Teams, Individual
Counseling) reserved for students with severe and
chronic academic or behavioral problems that have
not responded to Tier I or Tier II supports
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Response to Intervention
Participant Activity: Take the RTI Readiness Survey
•
Form into pairs or small groups.
•
Together, complete the RTI
Readiness Survey.
•
When finished, discuss your results
and address these questions:
– What areas of strength did you
identify?
– What areas did you identify that
need work?
– What would be your group’s top
three priorities in starting the RTI
model in this school?
RTI Readiness Survey available at: http://www.jimwrightonline.com/pdfdocs/survey_rti_wright.pdf
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Response to Intervention
For a comprehensive directory of up-to-date RTI
Resources available for free on the Internet, visit
RTI_Wire at:
http://www.jimwrightonline.com/php/rti/rti_wire.php
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Response to Intervention
References
•
Chafouleas, S.M., McDougal, J.L., Riley-Tillman, T.C., Panahon, C.J., & Hilt, A.M.
(2005). What do Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRCs) measure? An initial comparison of
DBRCs with direct observation for off-task behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 42(6),
669-676.
•
Fuchs, L. (2003). Assessing intervention responsiveness: Conceptual and technical
issues. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18(3), 172-186.
•
Gresham, F. (2001). Responsiveness to Intervention: an Alternative Approach to the
Identification of Learning Disabilities. Retrieved January 9, 2006, from
http://www.air.org/ldsummit/download/Gresham Final 08-10-01.doc
•
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, P.L. 108-466 (2004, 2005). 34
C.F.R. 300 (Proposed Regulations). Retrieved January 15, 2006, from
http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/01jan20051800/edocket.access.gpo.gov/2005/pdf/0
5-11804.pdf
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Response to Intervention
References
•
Kovaleski, J. F. (2003). The three-tier model of identifying learning disabilities: Critical
program features and system issues. Paper presented at the National Research Center
on Learning Disabilities Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas City, MO.
•
Shapiro, E. S. (1996). Academic skills problems: Direct assessment and intervention
(2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
•
Shinn, M. R. (1989). Identifying and defining academic problems: CBM screening and
eligibility procedures. In M. R. Shinn (Ed.), Curriculum based measurement: Assessing
special children (pp.90-129). New York: The Guilford Press.
•
Wright, J. (2005, Summer). Five interventions that work. NAESP [National Association of
Elementary School Principals] Leadership Compass, 2(4) pp.1,6.
•
Wright, J., & Cleary, K. S. (2006). Kids in the tutor seat: Building schools' capacity to
help struggling readers through a cross-age peer-tutoring program. Psychology in the
Schools, 43(1), 99-107.
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Response to Intervention
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