EMERGENCIES IN
GENERAL PRACTICE
By Amina Ahmed
&
Simon Robinson
CASE A
Case A - Anaphylaxis
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Anaphylaxis is a severe, life-threatening, generalised or systemic
hypersensitivity reaction.
It is characterised by rapidly developing life-threatening airway and/or
breathing and/or circulation problems usually associated with skin and
mucosal changes.
In general, the more rapid the onset of the reaction, the more serious it
will be.
Symptoms can develop within minutes and early, effective treatment
may be life saving.
Anaphylactic reactions may also be associated with additives and
excipients in medicines. It is wise therefore to check the full formulation
of preparations which may contain allergenic fats or oils (including
those for topical application, particularly if they are intended for use in
the mouth).
Case A - Anaphylaxis
Signs and symptoms may include:
• Urticaria, erythema, rhinitis, conjunctivitis.
• Abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea and a sense of impending
doom.
• Flushing is common, but pallor may also occur.
• Marked upper airway (laryngeal) oedema and bronchospasm may
develop, causing stridor, wheezing and/or a hoarse voice.
• Vasodilation causes relative hypovolaemia leading to low blood
pressure and collapse. This can cause cardiac arrest.
• Respiratory arrest leading to cardiac arrest.
Case A – Anaphylaxis
Management
Case A – Anaphylaxis
Management
CASE B
Cardiac emergencies
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The signs and symptoms of cardiac emergencies include chest pain,
shortness of breath, fast and slow heart rates, increased respiratory
rate, low blood pressure, poor peripheral perfusion (indicated by
prolonged capillary refill time) and altered mental state.
If there is a history of angina the patient will probably carry glyceryl
trinitrate spray or tablets (or isosorbide dinitrate tablets) and they should
be allowed to use them.
Where symptoms are mild and resolve rapidly with the patient’s own
medication, hospital admission is not normally necessary.
Sudden alterations in the patient’s heart rate (very fast or very slow)
may lead to a sudden reduction in cardiac output with loss of
consciousness.
Medical assistance should be summoned by dialling 999.
Case B. Myocardial infarction
Symptoms and signs of myocardial infarction
• Progressive onset of severe, crushing pain in the
centre and across the front of chest. The pain may
radiate to the shoulders and down the arms (more
commonly the left), into the neck and jaw or through
to the back.
 Skin becomes pale and clammy.
 Nausea and vomiting are common.
 Pulse may be weak and blood pressure may fall.
 Shortness of breath.
Case B. Myocardial infarction
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Call 999 immediately for an ambulance.
Allow the patient to rest in the position that feels most comfortable; in
the presence of breathlessness this is likely to be the sitting position.
Patients who faint or feel faint should be laid flat; often an intermediate
position (dictated by the patient) will be most appropriate.
Give high flow oxygen (10 litres per minute).
Give sublingual GTN spray if this has not already been given.
Reassure the patient as far as possible to relieve further anxiety.
Give aspirin in a single dose of 300 mg orally, crushed or chewed.
Ambulance staff should be made aware that aspirin has already been
given as should the hospital.
Many ambulance services in the UK will administer thrombolytic therapy
before hospital admission.
If the patient becomes unresponsive always check for ‘signs of life’
(breathing and circulation) and start CPR in the absence of signs of life
or normal breathing (ignore occasional ‘gasps’).
WITHOUT AED
WITH AED
CASE C
Case C. Epileptic seizures
Symptoms and signs
 There may be a brief warning or ‘aura’.
 Sudden loss of consciousness, the patient becomes rigid, falls,
may give a cry, and becomes cyanosed (tonic phase).
 After a few seconds, there are jerking movements of the limbs;
the tongue may be bitten (clonic phase).
 There may be frothing from the mouth and urinary incontinence.
 The seizure typically lasts a few minutes; the patient may then
become floppy but remain unconscious.
 After a variable time the patient regains consciousness but may
remain confused.
Case C. Epileptic seizures
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Fitting may be a presenting sign of Hypoglycaemia and
should be considered in all patients, especially known
diabetics and children. An early blood glucose
measurement is essential in all actively fitting patients
(including known epileptics).
Check for the presence of a very slow heart rate (<40
per minute) which may drop the blood pressure. This is
usually caused by a vasovagal episode (see Syncope
section below). The drop in blood pressure may cause
transient cerebral hypoxia and give rise to a brief fit.
Case C. Epileptic seizures Management
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During a convulsion try to ensure that the patient is not at risk
from injury but make no attempt to put anything in the mouth or
between the teeth (in the mistaken belief that this will protect the
tongue). Do not attempt to insert an oropharyngeal airway or
other airway adjunct while the patient is actively fitting.
Give high flow oxygen (10 litres per minute).
Do not attempt to restrain convulsive movements.
After convulsive movements have subsided place the patient in
the recovery position and reassess.
Case C. Epileptic seizures Management
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If the patient remains unresponsive always
check for ‘signs of life’ (breathing and
circulation) and start CPR in the absence of
signs of life or normal breathing (ignore
occasional ‘gasps’).
Check blood glucose level to exclude
hypoglycaemia. If blood glucose <3.0 mmol per
litre or hypoglycaemia is clinically suspected,
give oral/buccal glucose, or glucagon (see
Hypoglycaemia section below).
Case C. Epileptic seizures Management
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After the convulsion the patient may be confused (‘post-ictal
confusion’) and may need reassurance and sympathy.
The patient should not be sent home until fully recovered and
they should be accompanied.
It may not always be necessary to seek medical attention or
transfer to hospital unless the convulsion was atypical,
prolonged (or repeated), or if injury occurred. The National
Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines suggest the
indications for sending to hospital are:
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Status epilepticus.
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High risk of recurrence.
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First episode.
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Difficulty monitoring the individuals condition.
Case C. Epileptic seizures Management
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Medication should only be given if seizures are prolonged
(convulsive movements lasting 5 minutes or longer) or recur in
quick succession. In this situation an ambulance should be
summoned urgently.
With prolonged or recurrent seizures, ambulance personnel will
often administer IV diazepam which is usually rapidly effective in
stopping any seizure.
An alternative, although less effective treatment, is midazolam
given via the buccal or intranasal route in a single dose of 10mg
for adults. For children the dose can be simplified as follows:
child 1-5 years 5mg, child 5-10 years 7.5mg, above 10 years
10mg.
This might usefully be administered while waiting for ambulance
treatment, but the decision to do this will depend on individual
circumstances.
CASE D
CASE D. HYPOGLYCAEMIA
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Patients with diabetes should eat normally and take their
usual dose of insulin or oral hypoglycaemic agent before
any planned dental treatment.
If food is omitted after having insulin, the blood glucose
will fall to a low level (hypoglycaemia). This is usually
defined as a blood glucose <3.0 mmol per litre, but some
patients may show symptoms at higher blood sugar
levels.
Patients may recognise the symptoms themselves and
will usually respond quickly to glucose.
Children may not have such obvious features but may
appear lethargic.
CASE D. HYPOGLYCAEMIA
Symptoms and signs
• Shaking and trembling.
• Sweating.
• Headache.
• Difficulty in concentration / vagueness.
• Slurring of speech.
• Aggression and confusion.
• Fitting.
• Unconsciousness.
CASE D. HYPOGLYCAEMIA
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The following staged treatment protocol is a suggested
depending on the status of the patient. If any difficulty is
experienced or the patient does not respond, the ambulance
service should be summoned immediately; ambulance personnel
will also follow this protocol.
Confirm the diagnosis by measuring the blood glucose.
Early stages - where the patient is co-operative and
conscious with an intact gag reflex, give oral glucose (sugar
(sucrose), milk with added sugar, glucose tablets or gel). If
necessary this may be repeated in 10 –15 minutes.
CASE D. HYPOGLYCAEMIA
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In more severe cases - where the patient has impaired
consciousness, is uncooperative or is unable to swallow safely
buccal glucose gel and / or glucagon should be given.
 Glucagon should be given via the IM route (1mg in adults
and children >8years old or >25 kg, 0.5mg if <8 years old
or <25 kg). Remember it may take 5-10 minutes for
glucagon to work and it requires the patient to have
adequate glucose stores. Thus, it may be ineffective in
anorexic patients, alcoholics or some non-diabetic patients.
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Re-check blood glucose after 10 minutes to ensure that it
has risen to a level of 5.0 mmol per litre or more, in
conjunction with an improvement in the patient’s mental
status.
CASE E
CASE E. ASTHMA
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Patients with asthma (both adults and children) may have an attack
whilst at the surgery.
Most attacks will respond to a few ‘activations’ of the patient’s own
short-acting beta2-adrenoceptor stimulant inhaler such as salbutamol
(100 micrograms/actuation). Repeat doses may be necessary.
If the patient does not respond rapidly, or any features of severe
asthma are present, an ambulance should be summoned. Patients
requiring additional doses of bronchodilator should be referred for
medical assessment after emergency treatment.
If the patient is unable to use the inhaler effectively, additional doses
should be given through a large-volume spacer device.
CASE E. ASTHMA
Symptoms and Signs
Clinical features of acute severe asthma in adults include:
• Inability to complete sentences in one breath.
• Respiratory rate > 25 per minute.
• Tachycardia (heart rate > 110 per minute).
Clinical features of life threatening asthma in adults include:
• Cyanosis or respiratory rate < 8 per minute.
• Bradycardia (heart rate < 50 per minute).
• Exhaustion, confusion, decreased conscious level.
CASE E. ACUTE SEVERE
ASTHMA MANAGEMENT
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If the reponse is unsatisfactory and a nebuliser is unavailable,
4–6 activations from the salbutamol inhaler should be given
using a large-volume spacer device and repeated every 10
minutes if necessary until an ambulance arrives.
If the response remains unsatisfactory and a nebuliser is
available, give salbutamol 2.5mg-5mg via a nebuliser, and oral
prednisolone, 30mg stat.
If the response remains unsatisfactory and the patient develops
tachycardia, becomes distressed or cyanosed, arrangements
must be made to transfer the patient urgently to hospital.
CASE E. ACUTE SEVERE
ASTHMA MANAGEMENT
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If any patient becomes unresponsive always
check for ‘signs of life’ (breathing and
circulation) and start CPR in the absence of
signs of life or normal breathing (ignore
occasional ‘gasps’).
CASE F
CASE F. EPISTAXIS
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Epistaxis is so common that almost everyone has
had a nosebleed on at least several occasions,
usually as a result of trauma.
It has peaks of incidence at age 2-10 and 50-80
years old.
Both sexes are equally affected.
It is classified as anterior or posterior, depending
upon the source of bleeding
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Anterior haemorrhage - The source of bleeding is visible
in about 90% of cases - usually from the nasal septum
Posterior haemorrhage - This emanates from deeper
structures of the nose, and occurs more commonly in older
individuals
CASE F. EPISTAXIS
CAUSES
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Trauma to the nose (commonest cause) - especially nose picking! Insertion of foreign
bodies and excessive nose blowing may also be seen as trauma. The latter is likely to
occur with a cold when the nasal mucosa is congested. Sinusitis causes nasal congestion.
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Disorders of platelet function. Thrombocytopenia and other causes of abnormal platelets
including splenomegaly and leukaemia. Waldenström's macroglobulinaemia may present
with nosebleeds. ITP can occur in children and young adults.
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Drugs - aspirin and anticoagulants.
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Disorders of platelets are more likely to be a problem than clotting factor deficiency.
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Abnormalities of blood vessels. In the elderly arteriosclerotic vessels prolong bleeding.
Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome) causes recurrent
epistaxis from nasal telangiectasiae.
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Malignancy of the nose may present with bleeding. Juvenile angiofibroma is a highly
vascular benign tumour that typically presents in adolescent males.
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Cocaine Use - If the septum looks sloughed or atrophic ask about use of cocaine.3 The
drug is usually taken by inhalation and it has a very strong vasoconstrictive effect that can
lead to complete obliteration of the nasal septum.
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Other conditions - Wegener's granulomatosis and pyogenic granuloma can present as an
epistaxis.
CASE F. EPISTAXIS
MMANAGEMENT
Iniatial Assessment, First Aid
 Maintain a calm attitude around the patient - but protect yourself
(gloves, gown and goggles - the 3Gs).
 Resuscitate the patient (if necessary) - remember the ABCD(E)
of resuscitation.
 Take a quick history
 Which nostril is bleeding? Is there blood the pharynx?
 How much blood loss has there been? Are there symptoms of
hypovolaemia?
 Is the bleeding recurrent? What measures have been tried
before?
 Past medical history (e.g. recent trauma) and current medication
(especially aspirin or warfarin).
CASE F. EPISTAXIS
MMANAGEMENT
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Get the patient to sit upright, leaning slightly forward; and to
squeeze the bottom part of the nose (NOT the bridge of the
nose) for 10-20 minutes to try and stop the bleeding . Patient
should breathe through the mouth and spit out any blood/saliva
into a bowl. An ice pack on the bridge of the nose may help.
Monitor pulse and blood pressure.
If bleeding has stopped after this time (as it does in most cases)
proceed to inspect the nose using a nasal speculum and
consider cautery.
If the history is of severe and prolonged bleeding get expert help
- and watch carefully for signs of hypovolaemia etc..
CASE F. EPISTAXIS
MANAGEMENT
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Silver nitrate cautery and naseptin cream
Anterior bleeds - Packing
Posterior bleeds – packing/ balloon catheter
CASE F. EPISTAXIS
MANAGEMENT
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These are unnecessary in most (mild) cases
but recurrent or severe cases require at least
a FBC, coagulation studies and blood typing.
Quite marked anaemia can result but a
haematological malignancy may also be
revealed.
Any suspicion of malignancy of the nose or
other abnormality should require referral to
an ENT surgeon.
CASE G
CASE G - CHOKING
Children are susceptible to choking
Symptoms and Signs
• The patient may cough and splutter.
• They may complain of difficulty breathing.
• Breathing may become noisy with wheeze (usually
aspiration) or stridor(usually upper airway
obstruction).
• They may develop ‘paradoxical’ chest or abdominal
movements.
• They may become cyanosed and lose
consciousness.
CASE G – CHOKING
MANAGEMENT
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The treatment of the choking patient involves removing any
visible foreign bodies from the mouth and pharynx.
Encourage the patient to cough if conscious. If they are unable to
cough but remain conscious then sharp back blows should be
delivered. These can be followed by abdominal thrusts if the
foreign body has not been dislodged.
If the patient becomes unconscious, CPR should be started. This
will not only provide circulatory support but the pressure
generated within the chest by performing chest compressions
may help to dislodge the foreign body.
CASE G – CHOKING
MANAGEMENT
CASE H
CASE H - TRAUMA
Trauma Assessment
The initial assessment and management of seriously injured patients is a
challenging task and requires a rapid and systematic approach. This systematic
approach can be practised to increase speed and accuracy of the process but
good clinical judgement is also required. Although described in sequence some
of the steps will be taken simultaneously.
The aim of good trauma care is to prevent early trauma mortality. Early trauma
deaths occur because of failure of oxygenation of vital organs or central nervous
system injury or both.
Injuries causing this mortality occur in predictable patterns and recognition of
these patterns led to the development of Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS)
by the American College of Surgeons. A standardised protocol for trauma
patient evaluation has been developed. The protocol celebrated its 25th
anniversary in 2005. Good teaching and application of this protocol is held to be
an important factor in improving the survival of trauma victims worldwide.
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
First and most important:
Is it safe to
approach?
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
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Aims of the initial evaluation of trauma patients
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Stabilise the patient
Identify life threatening conditions in order of risk and
initiate supportive treatment
Organise definitive treatments or organise transfer for
definitive treatments
Preparation and coordination of care Assessment
and management will begin out of hospital at the
scene of injury and good communication with the
receiving hospital is important. The preparatory
measures are outlined below to 'set the scene':
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
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The prehospital phase
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Preparation of a resuscitation area
Airway equipment (laryngoscopes etc accessible,
tested)
Intravenous fluids (warming equipment etc)
Immediately available monitoring equipment
Methods of summoning extra medical help
Prompt laboratory and radiology backup
Transfer arrangements with trauma centre.
Guidelines on protection when dealing with
body fluid should be followed throughout this
and subsequent procedures.
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
General principles
1. Follow the Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability, and Exposure
approach (ABCDE) to assess and treat the patient.
2. Treat life-threatening problems as they are identified before moving to
the next part of the assessment.
3. Continually re-assess starting with Airway if there is further deterioration.
4. Assess the effects of any treatment given.
5. Recognise when you need extra help and call for help early. This may
mean
dialling 999 for an ambulance.
6. Use all of your resources – ask members of public for help. This will
allow you to do several things at once, e.g., collect emergency drugs
and equipment, dial 999.
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
Initial assessment
This comprises:
 Primary survey
 Resuscitation
 Secondary survey
 Definitive treatment or transfer for definitive
care
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
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A= Airway maintenance cervical spine
protection
B= Breathing and ventilation
C= Circulation with haemorrhage control
D= Disability: Neurological status
E= Exposure/ environmental control
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
As part of the secondary survey
 History:
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A=Allergies
M=Medication currently used
P=Past illnesses/Pregnancy
L=Last meal
E=Events/Environment related to injury
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
A= Airway maintenance cervical spine protection
 Are there signs of airway obstruction, foreign bodies,
facial, mandibular or laryngeal fractures?
 Establish a clear airway (chin lift or jaw thrust) but
protect the cervical spine at all times. If the patient
can talk the airway is likely to be safe but remain
vigilant and recheck. GCS less than 8 requires
definitive airway.
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
B= Breathing and ventilation
Evaluate breathing:
lungs, chest wall, diaphragm. Chest examination
with adequate exposure: watch chest movement,
auscultate, percuss to detect lesions acutely
impairing ventilation:
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Tension pneumothorax
Flail chest
Haemothorax
Pneumothorax.
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
C= Circulation with haemorrhage control
 Blood loss is the main preventable cause of death after trauma. To
assess blood loss rapidly observe:
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Level of consciousness
Skin colour
Pulse.
Bleeding should be assessed and controlled:
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Direct manual pressure should be used (not tourniquets except
for traumatic amputation as these cause distal ischaemia).
Transparent pneumatic splinting devices may control bleeding
and allow visual monitoring.
Occult bleeding into the abdominal cavity and around long bone
or pelvic fractures is problematic.
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
D= Disability: Neurological status
 After A,B and C above rapid neurological
assessment is made to establish
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Level of consciousness, using Glasgow Coma Scale
Pupils: size, symmetry and reaction
Any lateralising signs
Level of any spinal cord injury (limb movements,
spontaneous respiratory effort)
Note: remember oxygenation, ventilation, perfusion,
drugs, alcohol and hypoglycaemia may all also
affect level of consciousness.
CASE H – TRAUMA
MANAGEMENT
E= Exposure/ environmental control
 Undress patient, but prevent hypothermia
Clothes may need to be cut off, but after
examination attention to prevention of heat
loss with warming devices, warmed blankets
etc is important, Intravenous fluids should be
warmed before infusion.
CASE I
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
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Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) is a significant and
potentially life-threatening worldwide problem.
Despite advances in diagnosis and treatment, mortality and
morbidity have remained constant.
Bleeding from the upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is about 4
times as common as bleeding from the lower GIT.
Typically patients present with bleeding from a peptic ulcer and
about 80% of such ulcers stop bleeding.
Increasing age and co-morbidity increase mortality. It is important
to identify patients with a low probability of re-bleeding from
patients with a high probability of re-bleeding.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
Aetiology
A cause is found in 80% of cases. Approximate percentages given.
Note the predominance of peptic ulcer disease
 Peptic ulcer disease 35 to 50%:
 Gastroduodenal erosions 8 to 15%
 Oesophagitis 5 to 15%
 Oesophageal varices 5 to 10%
 'Mallory-Weiss' tears 15%
 Upper gastrointestinal malignancy 1%
 Vascular malformations 5%
 Rare causes - less than 5%:
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Dieulafoy's lesion (a vascular malformation of the proximal stomach)
Angiodysplasia; Haemobilia (bleeding from the gallbladder or biliary tree);
Pancreatic pseudocyst and pseudo-aneurysm; Aortoenteric fistula; Bleeding
diathesis; Ehlers-Danlos syndrome; Pseudoxanthoma elasticum; Gastric
antral vascular ectasia; and Rendu-Osler-Weber syndrome
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
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The strong association of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection with
duodenal ulcer is worthy of special mention. The organism disrupts the
mucosal barrier and causes inflammation in the gastric and duodenal
mucosae. Eradication reduces the risk of both recurrent ulcers and
recurrent haemorrhage.
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Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) are the second most
important aetiological factor. They exert an effect on cyclooxygenase-1
leading to impaired resistance of the mucosa to acid.
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The size of the bleeding vessel is important in prognosis. Visible
vessels are usually between 0.3 mm and 1.8 mm. Large bleeding
vessels cause faster blood loss. Generally larger vessels are found
deeper in the submucosa and serosa and more specifically high in the
lesser curve of the stomach and postero-inferiorly in the duodenal bulb.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
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Peptic ulcer disease is the most common cause of UGIB. Risk factors
for peptic ulcer disease are:
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Alcohol abuse
Chronic renal failure
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory use
Age
Low socio-economic class
Although duodenal ulcers are more common than gastric ulcers, both
contribute nearly equally to the incidence of UGIB. After an initial bleed
the risk factors for re-bleeding, with associated higher mortality, are:
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Age over 60
Presence of signs of shock at admission
Coagulopathy
Pulsatile haemorrhage
Cardiovascular disease
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
Assessment
History
 Is there abdominal pain?
 History of other gastrointestinal symptoms should be
sought. The symptoms in order of frequency are:
 Haematemesis including coffee-ground emesis: 40 to 50%
 Melaena: 70 to 80%
 Haematochezia (red or maroon stool): 15 to 20%
 Syncope: 14%
 Presyncope: 43%
 Dyspepsia:18%
 Epigastric pain: 41%
 Diffuse abdominal pain:10%
 Weight loss: 12%
 Jaundice 5%
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
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Alcohol intake.
Past history of bleeding (haematemesis or
melaena) or of anaemia.
Drug history is important. Drugs such as
NSAIDs, aspirin and corticosteroids are an
important cause of bleeding. Iron and
bismuth may mimic melaena.
Retching may precede bleeding with a
'Mallory-Weiss' tear.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
Examination
 The main aim of examination is to assess blood loss
and look for signs of shock.
 A secondary aim is to look for signs of underlying
disease and significant co-morbid conditions. For
example:
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Pallor and signs of anaemia should be sought
Pulse and blood pressure
Postural hypotension may be detected and usually
indicates a blood loss of 20% or more
Other signs of shock: Cool extremities; Chest pain;
Confusion; and Delirium
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
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Evidence of dehydration (dry mucosa, sunken eyes,
skin turgor reduced)
Stigmata of liver disease may be present (jaundice,
gynaecomastia, ascites, spider naevi, flap etc)
Signs of a tumour may be present (nodular liver,
abdominal mass, lymphadenopathy)
Subcutaneous emphysema and vomiting suggests
Boerhaave's syndrome (oesophageal perforation)
Urine output should be monitored (oliguria is a sign
of shock)
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
Differential Diagnosis
 Abdominal aortic aneurysm
 Boerhaave's syndrome
 Cholecystitis
 Coeliac sprue
 Dengue fever
 Disseminated intravascular coagulation
 Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
 Von Willebrand's disease
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
Assessment of bleeding severity and re-bleeding
Bleeding severity can be assessed by:
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The extent of blood loss
The degree of shock
However there are other factors which affect risk of death:
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Age: deaths under age 40 years are rare. 30% of patients over 90 years old
with UGIB die as a result of the bleed.
Co-morbidity: complications are more likely with co-morbid disease.
Shock: the presence of signs of shock confers a worse prognosis.
Endoscopic findings: much work has been done on classifying and
identifying endoscopic findings which correlate with high risk. For example:
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'Mallory-Weiss' tears or clean ulcers have a low risk of re-bleeding and death.
Active bleeding in a shocked patient carries an 80% risk of re-bleeding or
death.
Non-bleeding but visible vessel has a 50% risk of re-bleeding.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
Risk of Re-bleeding
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
Various methods have been designed to assess the risk of rebleeding. These include Rockall score (see next slide) and
Baylor score. Use of these remains controversial.
Co-morbid conditions have a significant effect on prognosis, as
embodied in the Rockall assessment. Patients with advanced
renal or liver disease and disseminated cancer fare worst.
Note: the Rockall score is a very useful tool but you should
always use your clinical judgement in each individual case.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
MANAGEMENT
Rockall score - initial assessment or at admission
 Calculate the initial Rockall score:



If 0, then consider patient for discharge or non-admission
with out-patient follow-up.
Rockall score >0 - i.e. all other patients - should be
considered for admission and early endoscopy and should
have a full Rockall score calculation.
Patients who have a Rockall score >0 should have
an early endoscopy which will allow calculation of
their full Rockall score.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
MANAGEMENT
Resuscitation is a priority
 It has been demonstrated that early and aggressive
resuscitation reduces mortality in UGIB.



Maintain airway - remember vomitus can lead to airway
obstruction.
Provide high flow oxygen - this will aid tissue perfusion.
Correct fluid losses (place 2 wide bore cannulae and also
send bloods at the same time). Initial fluid resuscitation
may be with crystalloids or colloids; give intravenous blood
when 30% of circulating volume is lost. Major haemorrhage
protocols should be in place.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
MANAGEMENT

Once patient is more stable



Assess the patient, taking history and examining
the patient as above - a collateral history might be
needed.
Identify and treat any co-morbid conditions.
Estimate the severity of bleeding
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
MANAGEMENT
Endoscopy

Ideally, endoscopy should be performed within 24 hours.

Endoscopy can be used both in diagnosis and therapy.

Therapy might involve injection of adrenaline or other sclerosants, thermal
coagulation or application of clips.

Meta-analysis of trials has shown that endoscopic haemostatic techniques
reduce bleeding, reduce the need for surgery and reduce mortality.

Endoscopic therapy should be applied to the following:






Actively bleeding lesion
Non-bleeding visible vessels
Ulcers with adherent clot
The preference is for dual therapy, e.g. injection of adrenaline with thermal
coagulation.
High dose PPI should be given to those with major peptic ulcer bleeding, i.e.
active bleeding or non-bleeding visible vessel.
All other patients who do not receive endoscopic therapy should
commence oral PPI post-procedure.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
MANAGEMENT
Medical management post-endoscopy
 H. pylori eradication:







All patients with bleeding peptic ulcer should be tested for H. pylori, e.g. urea
breath test and biopsy specimen.
Patients who test positive should receive a 1-week course of eradication
therapy.
This should be followed by 3 further weeks with ulcer healing treatment.
All therapy can be discontinued after successful healing of peptic ulcers
provided patients are not taking NSAIDs.
A negative urea breath test should be confirmed on the initial biopsy
specimen taken prior to diagnosis and before any PPI therapy was given.
Two weeks after successful therapy and stopping of all medication, a repeat
urea breath test should be performed to confirm successful eradication.
Unsuccessful eradication should be treated with second-line therapy.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
MANAGEMENT
Other points to note:

PPI use is not recommended prior to diagnosis by endoscopy in the latest SIGN
guidance, however current hospital protocols often include PPI use for
suspected UGIB before endoscopic confirmation.

There is insufficient evidence to use somatostatin or tranexamic acid in UGIB.

In selected patients (e.g. variceal haemorrhage) it may be appropriate to use
terlipressin or octreotide and, in the case of uncontrolled UGIB in an unstable
patient, balloon tamponade may be necessary, e.g. Sengstaken-Blakemore,
Minnesota or Linton-Nachlas tubes.

Patients with an UGIB might need to be admitted to a high-dependency unit or
intensive care unit. This decision should be clinical and used in conjunction with
the Rockall score.

Some hospitals have beds specifically for patients with an UGIB. Evidence
suggests that patients with UGIB should be assessed and managed in
dedicated units as their outcome is improved.

Emergency endoscopy should be available 24 hours a day in such units.

Note that patients with liver disease are a special case and have separate
guidelines for management.
CASE I – GI BLEEDING
MANAGEMENT
Other Medication:
 Anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents should be stopped during
the acute phase and restarted later only if there is a clear
indication.
 Patients who have healed ulcers and were H. pylori negative and
require aspirin or NSAIDs or COX2 inhibitors, should be given
concomitant PPI.
 SSRIs should be used in caution in patients at risk of UGIB or
who have had a previous UGIB (especially if other drugs such as
aspirin or NSAIDs are used).
 Corticosteroids will also need to be used carefully and probably
with concomitant PPI in high-risk patients or those on high doses.
CASE J
CASE J. ECTOPIC
PREGNANCY


An ectopic pregnancy is one that occurs
anywhere outside the uterus
By far the commonest place for ectopic
pregnancy is the fallopian tubes. There are a
few documented cases of viable pregnancy
outside the uterus and tubes but as a general
rule only an intrauterine pregnancy is viable.
CASE J. ECTOPIC
PREGNANCY
Risk factors

Pelvic inflammatory disease may cause complete tubal occlusion or delay the
transport of the embryo so that implantation occurs in the tube. Adhesions from
infection and inflammation from endometriosis may play a part.

Ectopic pregnancy has been reported in tubes that have been divided in a
sterilisation operation and where they have been reconstructed to reverse one.

Ectopic pregnancy has been reported in the treatment of infertility

Right sided tubal pregnancy is commoner than on the left. This is thought to be
from spread of infection from appendicitis.

The ability of the tube to expand increases from medially to laterally. Hence a
more lateral implantation will present later as either pain or rupture.

Where an IUCD or progestogen-only oral contraceptives, including emergency
contraception fails, the risk of a pregnancy being ectopic is greater than with
other forms of contraception. Depot and implant contraception may not have the
same risks. Ectopic pregnancy has been reported with implant contraception
with etonogestrel (Implanon™) but appears rare.

An IUCD, being a foreign body with threads hanging into the vagina, increases
the risk of infection. It is effective at preventing intrauterine pregnancy but
probably ineffective at preventing pregnancy at other sites. Therefore, if
pregnancy occurs with an IUCD in situ consider ectopic pregnancy
CASE J. ECTOPIC
PREGNANCY
PRESENTATION
30% of ectopics present before a period has been missed
 The first symptom is usually pain. This may be left or right iliac fossa
pain or it may be central and suprapubic. If vaginal bleeding occurs it is
much less significant than the pain.
There may be a missed period and signs of pregnancy, perhaps even a
positive pregnancy test.
 There may be a history of a previous ectopic pregnancy. After one
ectopic pregnancy the chance of another in the other tube is much
increased.
 If the ectopic pregnancy has ruptured, bleeding is profuse and there
may be features of hypovolaemic shock including feeling dizzy on
standing. Most bleeding will be into the pelvis and so vaginal bleeding
may be minimal and misleading.
 Recent CEMACH reports have repeatedly emphasised the importance
of diarrhoea and vomiting as a possible, atypical clinical presentation of
ectopic pregnancy.
CASE J. ECTOPIC
PREGNANCY
Examination
 There may be some tenderness in the suprapubic region to left or right
of the midline.
 If bleeding has started there may be peritonism and signs of an acute
abdomen.
 There may be signs of early pregnancy such as fullness and
tenderness of the breasts.
 Bimanual vaginal examination may reveal a tender fullness of one
adnexum but some authorities recommend that this should not be done
as the examination may rupture the tubal pregnancy.
 There is evidence that vaginal examination in suspected ectopic
pregnancy adds nothing to the clinical picture and so should be
avoided.5 The cited paper is just one of many reaching a similar
conclusion.
 A check must be made for signs of blood loss. If there is hypovolaemic
shock, resuscitation and transfer to hospital must occur without delay.
CASE J. ECTOPIC
PREGNANCY
Investigation
 The most accurate method to detect a tubal
pregnancy is transvaginal ultrasound. Its availability
improves management.
 Quantitative assessment of hCG levels is of value in
confirming pregnancy and follow up if there is
medical or conservative management.
 If hCG is below 1000 units and ultrasound has failed
to locate an intrauterine or tubal pregnancy it is
called a pregnancy of unknown location.
CASE J. ECTOPIC
PREGNANCY MANAGEMENT




Admit as an emergency if the diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy is
considered a possibility. A bedside pregnancy test should be
performed on all women of childbearing age presenting with
lower abdominal pain where pregnancy is even the remotest
possibility.
Expectant Management in hospital
 Clinically stable patient, HCG<1000 and falling
Medical Management
 Haemodynamically stable and initial HCG<3000
 IM Methotrexate
 Need Reliable contraception for 3months after
 10% need surgical intervention
Surgical Management
CASE J. ECTOPIC
PREGNANCY MANAGEMENT
Prognosis
 The risk of another ectopic pregnancy is about 10 to 20%
 The chance of subsequent intrauterine pregnancy is about 55 to 60%
Prevention
 Ectopic pregnancy does not occur in normal tubes, so prevention is
based on avoiding the cause of damaged tubes



This includes avoiding promiscuity and activities that predispose to pelvic
inflammatory disease and the early diagnosis and treatment of appendicitis.
That is not to say that all PID is sexually transmitted but many of the
infecting organisms, including Chlamydia spp. are usually spread by that
route.
Routine screening of asymptomatic people for chlamydia may reduce the
incidence of ectopic pregnancy, but this is yet to be proved.