The Persian War is one of the most famous and most fascinating wars in human history. It was
fought in the fifth century BC between Persian Empire, far and away the largest and wealthiest
kingdom on earth, and a collection of independent Greek cities who lived in relative poverty and
obscurity. The Greeks had not a fraction of the wealth or population of the Persians, and were
themselves disunited and engaged in perpetual conflicts, yet they soundly defeated the Persians
and retained their independence and freedoms. The Persian war was remarkable not only for its
ferocious battles, which showcased the superiority of Greek military methods, but also for the
striking personalities involved, the democratic character of the military command, and the ability of
the constantly bickering Greeks to drop their strong divisions and unite behind a single cause. It is
a popular war to study, not only because of its striking military engagements and historical
significance but also for the great human dramas that were played out behind the scenes.
First Persian Invasion
Ionian Revolt : 499-449 B.C.
The most famous battles of the Persian war were
fought on mainland Greece, but the conflict began in
Asia minor, when the Greek colonies of Ionia, revolted
against their Persian overlords. This rebellion was
called the Ionian revolt, and lasted from BC 499, to
494. It began when rebels, under the leadership of a
Aristagoras of Miletus, sacked and burned the local
capital city of Sardis, and ended when the Persians
retook Miletus and crushed the rebel stronghold, after
the naval battle of Lade.
Ionia
Darius I, the Persian king was very angry that Athens had lent ships and
military support to the Ionians, and determined to raise an army to invade
Athens to punish it for its interference. During his campaigns to put down the
rebellion, he had conquered much of Thrace and Macedonia, and so he already
controlled much of the territory he would need to launch an invasion from the
north on Athens. The first expedition he prepared was led by his son-in-law
Mardonius, in 492. It crossed the Hellespont into Thrace, but the entire fleet was
destroyed by a sudden storm off the Chalcidice Peninsula, and he returned to
Persia.
Second Persian Invasion (under Darius): 490 B.C.
The Battle of Marathon
Darius launched his second expedition in 490. This
time, the entire invading force, including cavalry, was
sent by ship across the Aegean Sea. The expedition
was led by Artaphernes and Datis, two Persian
commanders who had put down the Ionian rebellion,
and Hippias, an exiled Athenian tyrant. The Persians
first besieged and captured the main city on the Island
of Euboea before landing in Attica on the shore of
Marathon. The Athenians, ten thousand strong, were
awaiting the arrival of reinforcements from Sparta, but
under the influence of Miltiades, a general who had
previously been one of the leaders of the Ionian
rebellion, they attacked immediately, just as the
Persians were breaking camp. Although the Persian forces were much larger, they were surprised
and routed with great loss.
Marathon
Third Persian Invasion Under Xerxes : 481-479 B.C.
The Battle of Thermopylae & Salamis
The Persians did not attack Greece again for ten years, but after Darius’s son Xerxes became king,
the Persians launched another expedition against Athens. This time they were determined to use
overwhelming force, so in 481 BC Xerxes gathered together an army of several hundred thousand
infantry and a navy of six hundred ships. He demanded that the Greek city-states submit to him
without resistance, and many did, including Thebes. The Athenians and Spartans however,
insulted the Persian ambassadors and vowed resistance to the end. Fortunately for all of Greece,
the Athenian politician, Themistocles, had foreseen trouble years ahead of time, and had
convinced the Athenians to begin a navy-building project so by 481 BC, Athens had a navy of over
two hundred ships.
While Xerxes gathered his army at the
Hellespont, the 31 Greek city states that had
decided to resist the Persians, were fielding a
united Greek army, under the leadership of
Sparta. Themistocles led Athens' fleet, and
although a Spartan admiral was in chief
command, Themistocles was very influential in
all naval operations. The first great battle of
the united Greeks against Xerxes army was at
Thermopylae, a narrow pass in the north of
Thessaly. It was there that the Spartan King
Leonidas, with 300 Spartans held out for three
days against the entire Persian army. After a
lopsided battle in which thousands of Persians
were slaughtered by Spartan's tiny force, the
resolute defenders were eventually surrounded
and killed, and Xerxes army passed unopposed to Athens, which it burned to the ground.
As soon as the pass of Thermopylae was lost, the Greek fleet worked full time to evacuate Athens
and its surrounding communities to local islands. They were stationed on the island of Salamis, in
sight of the ruins of Athens, when after a fit of contentious infighting, the decision was made to
give battle to the Persians at once. The famous naval Battle of Salamis ensued, during which
the Greek fleet won a dramatic and decisive victory over the much larger Persian navy. The
Persian fleet was destroyed, and Xerxes returned to Persia, leaving Mardonius in charge of the
conquered region. It was not until the following year, however, that the Spartans realized that the
Persians had no intention of meeting them at their fortified isthmus, and emerged from their
Peloponnesian stronghold. Then, at the hard-fought Battle of Plataea, they drove the all the
Persians from the Greek mainland.
Soon after the Battle of Salamis destroyed the Persian navy, the Ionian Greeks in Asia minor
started a new rebellion. At the Battle of Mycale, fought at the same time as Plataea, the Greeks
won a major victory in Ionia, which freed the Island of Samos from Persian control, and Athens
agreed to protect it. This was the beginning of the Delian league, and the foundation of the
Athenian Empire.
Persian War Aftermath : 479-450
Over the following thirty years, Athens continued to fight battles with Persia for control of the
dozens of Greek colonies in the Aegean Sea. It was not until 448 BC that a treaty finally ended
hostilities between Athens and Persia, and by that time Athens was the dominant power in the
Aegean Sea.
After reading the article on the Greco-Persian War, please complete the following
chart. Cite the outcome of the battle, and then provide a concise, but detailed
description of key events pertaining to that battle.
Battle &
Outcome
Battle of Marathon
Outcome:
Battle of
Thermopylae
Outcome:
Battle of Salamis
Outcome:
Description