Student Code/ID:
1027
Unit code
Submitted to
Mrs Kinley Om
Assignment title
The study of causes and consequences of rape in Bhutan
Word count
CHECKLIST
I have:
Followed the referencing rules set out in the unit outline.
Declaration
I acknowledge that:
this assignment is my own work
this assignment is expressed predominantly in my own words
the words and ideas of others, where used, are properly used and acknowledged
no part of this assignment has been previously submitted for assessment.
I understand that by submitting my work to in both soft and hard copy to Royal Institute of
Management (RIM), it will be maintained within the premises of Institute’s Academic Policy.
Signature
Submitted by; Kinzang Dechen
Approved by the Academic Committee on ………………………Royal Institute of Management, Semtokha
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Acknowledgement
I would like to sincerely thank ma’am Kinley Om, Department of Finance and Business, for
supervising me with full dedication and interest; for her constant assistance and close monitoring
till the research work has been completed.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to Ugyen Lhendup, the course coordinator, for his time
and assistance whenever needed.
My heart full gratitude goes to the employees of Respect, Educate, Nurture, and Empower
Women and Royal Bhutan Police for providing me with the required data, and time for
interview.
Besides the employees I am thankful to the 150 randomly selected respondents who took their
time for filling up the questionnaires.
My sincerest appreciation also extends to Mrs. Karma Tshomo for the supportive environment
and the helps extended to me in materials and other means.
Finally, I cannot forget to thank my close friends for helping me in doing my research.
1
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Abstract
The study on rape empirically examines the main causes and consequences of rape in Bhutan.
This research will have significant benefit to organizations which are concerned with issues like
rape in understanding the cause and consequences of rape. Also, the study will serve as a guide
for the general public to get more insight about rape and the precautions they could take to resist
it and, it can also serve as blueprint for future researcher, since, there is no prior study conducted
on this topic in Bhutan.
This study is of great importance as rape is one of the phenomenon which are occurring
worldwide through times. For this research, data were collected from 150 randomly chosen
respondents using convenience sampling and, in-depth interview with the employees of
RENEW. Data were analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistics such as simple
frequency, percentage, mean, median and mode, and final output were presented through bar
graphs, pie-charts and tables in IBM SPSS statistics 20 and Microsoft Excel.
The findings indicate that the common causes of rape are alcoholism, substance abuse, sexual
desire, reading and watching pornography, indecent dressing, unequal power relations (male
domination), revenge and punishment, and jealousy. On the other hand aftermath of rape are
stigmatization in the society, abuse alcohol, drug abuse behavior, pregnancy, depression and
trauma, suicidal tendency and, thoughts of revenge and nightmares.
However being novice in research, the scope of this study is limited to the causes and
consequences of rape in Bhutan therefore, further research need to be carried out on preventions
and precautions in order to resist rape which could be the main helpful research for the benefit of
everyone.
2
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Research Problem ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Significance of the study ..................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2....................................................................................................................................................... 8
Literature Review .......................................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 3..................................................................................................................................................... 13
Description of Research Designs and Methods .......................................................................................... 13
3.1 Research area and target population ............................................................................................... 13
3.2 Source of data and data collection ................................................................................................... 13
3.3 Sample Study..................................................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Data processing tools and interpretation ......................................................................................... 13
Chapter 4..................................................................................................................................................... 14
Ethical Consideration .................................................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 5..................................................................................................................................................... 15
Limitations of the study .............................................................................................................................. 15
Chapter 6 Secondary Data .......................................................................................................................... 16
6.1 Rape cases reported to RBP 2007- 2013........................................................................................... 16
6.2 Rape cases from 2008-2014 as per RENEW ...................................................................................... 17
Chapter 7..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Analysis of Data and Findings ..................................................................................................................... 18
7.1 Sample characteristics of respondents ............................................................................................. 18
7.2 Awareness of Rape............................................................................................................................ 19
7.3 Rape as a criminal offence ................................................................................................................ 19
3
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.4 Rape is becoming a growing concern in Bhutan ............................................................................... 20
7.5 The main causes of rape ................................................................................................................... 21
Gender * Alcoholism (influence both victim and culprit) Cross tabulation ........................................ 22
Gender * Indecent dressing Cross tabulation ..................................................................................... 25
Gender * unequal power relations (male domination) Cross tabulation ........................................... 27
7.6 The main consequences of rape ........................................................................................................ 29
7.7 Have you ever been sexually abused?............................................................................................... 35
7.7.1 If yes, at what age? .................................................................................................................... 36
7.8 Does a father rape his own daughter? ............................................................................................... 37
7.9 Should a rapist be punished?............................................................................................................. 38
7.10 Can Rape be prevented? ................................................................................................................. 40
Chapter 8..................................................................................................................................................... 41
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 9..................................................................................................................................................... 43
Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................... 43
Reference .................................................................................................................................................... 44
Appendices.................................................................................................................................................. 47
Questionnaire .......................................................................................................................................... 47
4
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
List of Tables
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Rape cases reported to RBP 2007- 2013
Sample characteristics of respondents
Heard about sexual abuse or rape
Rape is a criminal offence
Gender * Alcoholism (influence both victim and culprit) Cross tabulation
Gender * Indecent dressing Cross tabulation
Gender * unequal power relations (male domination) Cross tabulation
If yes, at what age?
Statistics
List of Figures
Figure 1 Total rape cases reported 2007-2013 (RBP)
Figure 2 Rape cases from 2008-2014 as per RENEW
Figure 3 Rape is becoming a growing concern in Bhutan
Figure 4 Alcoholism
Figure 5 Substance abuse
Figure 6 Sexual desire
Figure 7 Reading and watching pornography
Figure 8 Indecent Dressing
Figure 9 Unequal Power Relations
Figure 10 Revenge and Punishment
Figure 11 Jealousy
Figure 12 Stigmatization in the Society
Figure 13 Abuse Alcohol
Figure 14 Drug Abuse Behavior
Figure 15 Pregnancy
Figure 16 Depression and Trauma
Figure 17 Suicidal tendency
Figure 18 Thoughts of Revenge and Nightmares
Figure 19 Have you ever been sexually abused?
Figure 20 Does a father rape his own daughter?
Figure 21 Should a rapist be punished?
Figure 22 Can rape be prevented?
5
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Rape has become a growing concern despite various precautions and policies made to curb it. As
per Sanday (1981) there are two types of culture- “rape-free” and “rape-prone”. “Rape-free
societies are those in which rape is either non-existent or infrequent; rape-prone societies are
those in which the incidence of rape is high, rape is used as a ceremonial act, and/or rape is
used by men as a means to punish or dominate women” (as cited in WHO, 2007). Bhutan too is
in the verge of falling under the “rape-prone” culture despite the minimum population of the
country.
Rape as reported to RBP alone is 47 in 2007 to 71 in 2010 to 76 in 2012 and, 64 in 2013 (RBP,
2013). Rape cases reported to RENEW got increased from 3 in 2008 to 6 in 2012 to 7 in 2013.
These reported cases might seem negligible but many cases are forgone unreported. According to
Kilpatrick (2000), rape is the most underreported crime in America, which is further supported in
Tjaden & Thoennes’ (2006) findings that only one in five women who were raped as adults
reported their rape to the police.
Though numerous researches have been conducted on rape worldwide, not a single research has
been done in Bhutan. So this study intend to answer the queries like what are the causes and
consequences behind constant growth of rape in Bhutan and, what are the precautions and safety
measures one should inculcate to resist rape through questionnaires collected from 150 randomly
selected respondents and in-depth interview conducted with RENEW officials. The findings will
confirm whether or not people are conscious about rape and their attitude towards it.
1.2 Research Problem
Rape, despite strict laws amended against it in “the Penal Code of Bhutan” classified under
chapter 14 - “Sexual Offences” of section 177-214, the figure is still high. One person is raped
every seven days (RBP, 2013). On average the rape cases reported to Royal Bhutan Police has
increased from 2007 to 2013 i.e. from 47 to 67 respectively (RBP, 2013). As per the record,
6
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
reported rape cases to RENEW have been gradually increasing on an average from 3 in 2008 to 7
in 2013. Age and blood relation come as no bar for one to commit rape, for instance a father
rapes his daughters (Dema, 2014), an uncle rapes his niece (Namgyel, 2014), and an old man
sexually harasses his old neighbor (Wangdi, 2014). Amongst the type of sexual offence, rape of
the minor (child above 12 years of age) has been the highest in list counting up to 30 in 2013,
and criminal attempt to rape continuous to be consistent with 7 in 2007 to 7 in 2013 (RBP,
2013). The issue of rape has become a biggest concern for every Bhutanese, which should not be
neglected rather should be brought in the front and studied thoroughly in order to eradicate it if
not reduce it. Therefore this research tries to study what are the causes and consequences of rape
in Bhutan.
1.3 Significance of the study
 This research will enable to understand the causes and consequences of rape in Bhutan.
 The study aims to make a substantial contribution to the organizations which deal with
rape issues.
 This study can further assist people from preventing themselves from raping and being
raped by being informed about the causes and consequences of rape.
 For future researcher, the proposed study would benefit and serve as a guide.
1.4 Objective

To find the causes and consequences of rape in Bhutan
1.5 Research Questions
7

What are the causes and consequences of rape?

How are people reacting to rape; are there any precautions taken to resist rape?
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Rape is one of the inevitable social stigmas occurring worldwide through times. “The origins of
the word rape are found in the ancient Greek – to steal” (Brown, 2003). Rape as Crake (n.d.)
term it in his case study is as “sexual assault” as it is “often associated solely with sexual
penetration and sexual penetration is only one form of sexual assault”. Rape is “essentially about
people who force themselves sexually upon others, often in very violent ways” Crake (n.d.). In
other term, McCabe and Wauchope (2005) define the term rape as the penetration of the anus or
vagina by a penis, finger or object or the penetration of the mouth by a penis. If a person is
forced to penetrate someone…this is also regarded as rape. Rape and sexual violent acts
according to WHO (as cited in Mabasa, 2012) include coerced sex in marriage and dating
relationships, rape by strangers, systematic rape during armed conflict, sexual harassment
(including demands for sexual favors in return for jobs or school grades), sexual abuse of
children, forced prostitution and sexual trafficking, child marriage, and violent acts against the
sexual integrity of women, including female genital mutilation and obligatory inspections for
virginity.
Although rape is a gender-neutral crime, the National Violence against Women Survey
(NVAWS) findings indicates that most rape victims are women and most rapists are men.
Results from the NVAWS revealed that 17.7 million women and 2.8 million men in the United
States were forcibly raped at some time in their lives, with 302,091 women and 92,748 men
forcibly raped in the year preceding the survey. (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006). “Sexual and
gender-based violence occurs in all classes, cultures, religions, races, gender and ages” (United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2003). The Domestic Violence Victims Support Unit
(DOVVSU) of the Ghana Police Service reports that on average, 21% of Ghanaian women are
forced by their husbands to have sex, 8% of all women have been raped, and 6% of all girls have
been raped (of which 78% were defiled by a close relative, acquaintance, or authority figure) (as
cited in Aryee, 2013).
8
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
The main causes of rape varies amongst researches. Rape usually is linked with force and
aggression as “most modern conceptualizations of rape recognize that it involves both aggressive
and sexual behavior” (McCabe & Wauchope, 2005).As per the research by Esere, Idowu,
Durosaro and Omotosho (2009) in Lagos, Nigeria, the perceived causes of Intimate Partner
Rape/Violence (IPRV) as reported by the women were unequal power relations (45.45%),
alcohol and drug dependence (22.73%), jealousy (18.18%). Other causes mentioned by the
women included lack of tolerance and patience (9.09%) and stress and disturbed emotion
(4.55%). In Declue (2005) review of the book, “The causes of rape: Understanding individual
differences in male propensity for sexual aggression”, he aligns with the above findings stating
that “rape is more common when the women to be raped are devalued and the perceived costs
are very low”, and also when “reproductive consequences not withstanding”. According to
Hirschowitz, Worku, and Orkin’ (2000) of the 22,121 reported cases that went to court (in South
Africa), only a fifth (19.8%) resulted in the conviction of the accused. The ultimate finding is
that the major factors associated with rape have “their roots in the cultural framework of the
society which ascribes lower status to girls and women compared to boys and men and uphold
male dominance over women” (Esere et al., 2009). The high incidence of rape according to one
of the essays “Defining a rape culture” of University of California (2014), also claim is a result
of the power imbalance between men and women (where) women are expected to assume a
subordinate relationship to men.
According to the social science explanation of rape “the motivation to rape has little, if anything,
to do with sexual desire… it holds that rape is an attempt by men to dominate and control
women… also contends that rape only occurs when males are taught by their culture, directly or
indirectly, to rape” (Thornhill & Palmer, 2001).
This explanation of rape by social science is opposed by Thornhill & Palmer (2001) by stating:
 sexual stimulation is a proximate cause of raping and is the common denominator across
human rapes of all kinds
 a woman’s appearance and behavior might have some influence on the risk factors of
getting raped
9
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
 “physical attractiveness” of the women mostly at the ages of “peak attractiveness”
becomes the risk factor as most of the frequent victims of rape are from “late teens and
early twenties”
 Another factor is the differences in “male and female sexuality” where “women are
evolved to choose mates carefully and men to be less selective and pursue many
partners, including without commitment”.
Other contributing factor researchers have found out is alcohol and substance abuse. McDonald
(1994) suggests that “connections between violence and drunkenness are socially learnt, and that
substance use may act as a cultural excuse for antisocial behavior”. In the influence of alcohol
men are more likely to rape and also become victimized. As per Crowell & Burges (1996), “for
the victims, alcohol reduces the ability to read social cues and to protect oneself…. the
consumption of alcohol may place women in locations where rapes may be more likely to occur,
such as nightclubs”.
As per some of the respondents of the research conducted by Mabasa (2012) in South Africa, one
intention behind rape could be an attempt to “spread HIV infection”. At an individual level
factors such as sex and power motives, attitude and gender schemas, social learning,
psychopathology and personality traits… may contribute to an act of rape. At a societal level,
factors such as sexual scripts and cultural beliefs may play a role in causing rape as per Vicary,
Klingaman & Harkness (1995).
Rape not just changes the life of the victim and culprit but also the society they live in. As per
the analysis by the National Woman’s Study in US found that rape may lead to alcohol and drug
abuse in women who previously did not use them (WHO, 2007). “Burnam and colleagues (1988)
found that after a traumatic event, 16% of subjects started to abuse alcohol and 19% developed
drug abuse behaviors, compared to 8% and 2% of matched controls” (WHO, 2007). Rape as per
Thornhill and Palmer (2001) “generates tremendous misery for all of its victims and their mates
and families throughout the world”.
10
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Rape (Aryee, 2013) affects the health and wellbeing of women, leading to increased levels of
depression, distress, and trauma. Kilpatrick (2004) finds that rape compromises the ability of
women to cope with daily life, and Calhoun finds that women may experience anger, thoughts of
revenge, and nightmares. Hagen (2010) states that rape victims may also show a “lack of interest
in their environment, complete loss of self-esteem, deep helplessness, and despair”. They can
also develop chronic difficulties including… low self-esteem, fear, depression, shame and other
psychological disorders (McCabe & Wauchope, 2005). As per United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) report, women raped during war are often sentenced to a
life with long lasting health problems and many die from injuries, unsafe self-induced abortions,
maternal mortality, and suicide (Hagen, 2010).
It is also found that the victim may feel “extremely tense, humiliated, and guilty about the
experience, may blame themselves for not fighting the perpetrator hard enough, and may develop
revengeful thoughts associated with the rape” (Aryee, 2013). Self-loathing and rejection of
one’s body often results in self-injurious behavior and suicidal tendencies. Kilpatrick (2004)
reported that survivors may have different immediate reactions after rape: some exhibit shock
and distress through words and tears, while others have more internalized suffering. Besides
interpersonal relationships with intimate partners, friendships and family relationships, can all be
affected following sexual assault (Boyd, 2011).
In a study conducted by Bloom (2003) a community sample of 1,490 adolescents- aged 12 to 19,
were analyzed to investigate the relationship between a history of sexual abuse and adolescent
functioning. Both sexually abused girls and boys reported significantly more emotional
problems, behavioral problems, suicidal thoughts and attempts than their non-abused
counterparts. The results also indicated that the experience of sexual abuse carried far more
consequences for boys than for girls regarding the use of alcohol, aggressive/criminal behavior,
use of drugs, and the amount of truancy, as well as regarding suicidal thoughts and behavior.
Whereas 2.6 percent of the non-abused boys reported a former suicide attempt, this percentage
was 13 times higher for the sexually abused boys.
11
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Another consequence of rape could be the “lose time from work” as the survey conducted by
NVAWS (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006) found that 19.4 percent of the female victims and 9.7
percent of the male victims raped as adults said their victimization caused them to lose time from
work - to obtain medical treatment, attend court hearings, meet with a psychologist or other
mental health professional, and avoid contact with their assailant. Rape survivors experience
innumerable negative impacts be it physically or mentally. The impacts of sexual assault go
“beyond the individual, to have a collective impact on the social wellbeing of our communities”
(Boyd, 2011).
Rape as per McDonald, M. (1994) can best be prevented if the “environmental factors” leading
to rape is addressed… these environmental factors include certain learning experiences during
boys’ upbringing such as the conditions of poverty, limited enduring relationships and father
absence. They suggest that the number of boys raised under conditions of poverty in industrial
societies could be greatly reduced by taxation policies that lower wealth inequalities, coupled
with more taxation revenues being directed at socially disfranchised families. The father-absence
rearing environments would decline as McDonald, M. (1994) suggest that if fathers, following
divorce, were given tax credits when they resided near their sons and provided sons with
emotional and financial support.
The other aid for the survivor could be the reactions of family, friends and partners which can
help or hinder the recovery of the victim/survivor. Negative reactions can lead to avoidant
coping styles associated with less successful recovery, while supportive reactions can assist with
recovery and healing as founded by Littleton & Breitkopf (2006). One priority in order to reduce
sexual violence could be “equal access to and control of material resources and assistance” and
“women’s equal participation in decision-making processes should be reflected in all programs”
(UNHCR, 2003). As per the president Barack Obama (2012) “it is up to all of us to ensure
victims of sexual violence are not left to face these trials alone. Too often, survivors suffer in
silence, fearing retribution, lack of support, or that the criminal justice system will fail to bring
the perpetrator to justice” (as cited in The White House Council on Women and Girls, 2014).
12
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 3
Description of Research Designs and Methods
3.1 Research area and target population
The target population for this research are the officials of RENEW and the general public in
Thimphu area. The total strength in RENEW is 19 employees; the rape victims in Thimphu area
is unknown and due to innumerable constraints general public is chosen as target population
instead of the victims. Therefore, this research is conducted primarily in Thimphu considering
limitation of researcher time and resources.
3.2 Source of data and data collection
The study is exploratory in nature and incorporates the use of both Qualitative and Quantitative
method. It is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data includes a set of
structured questionnaires (both open and close-ended questions), and relatively unstructured and
open ended interview. Basically the main source of primary data was collected from the RBP;
RENEW employees, and the general public. For the secondary data, relevant literature review
from relevant research journals, publications, books and other relevant information were referred
to.
3.3 Sample Study
For this study the population comprises the officials of RENEW and the general public of
Thimphu. Since the number of rape victims residing in Thimphu is unknown and due to
confidentiality and seriousness of issue, the general public is studied through questionnaire
instead of the victims. In the case of RENEW, in-depth interview is conducted with the
employees.
3.4 Data processing tools and interpretation
The data generated from the questionnaires and the interviews are analyzed using Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20 and Microsoft Excel. Statistical tool such as
simple frequencies like mean, mode, percentages, and cross tabulation are used to interpret the
data. The final output and explanations are made clear by using bar graphs, pie charts and tables.
13
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 4
Ethical Consideration
 The respondents were requested to participate as per their will and no force was involved.
 The data collected are purely for academic purpose and are treated with utmost
confidentiality.
 The researcher reported only on the research findings and no personal conclusions were
made.
 The data sources were acknowledged with in-text citation and end text referencing. Also,
the help provided by various groups and individuals for the completion of this research
has been properly acknowledged.
14
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 5
Limitations of the study
 The study sample include only the residents of Thimphu city due to the limitation of time,
so the findings collected could only be the views of the people residing in the urban areas
and may not reflect the views of the rural areas.
 The negligible research on the reasons of rape in Bhutan’s context becomes a challenge
given the extensive study demanded by the research..
 Another challenge to write authentic research could be bared due to the inappropriate
respondents i.e. it was impossible despite constant trying to get in contact with the
victims of rape.
 It is outside the scope of this research to study other than the causes and consequences of
rape so this research brings future prospects on varies preventions and risk reductions
scheme of rape.
15
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 6 Secondary Data
6.1 Rape cases reported to RBP 2007- 2013
Table 1 Rape cases reported to RBP 2007- 2013
Sexual Offence
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Rape
22
11
8
10
12
10
10
Criminal attempt to rape
7
5
18
8
13
12
7
rape of a married person
1
3
4
2
4
7
2
Statutory Rape
4
5
5
4
7
8
5
Rape of a child above 12 years of age
3
3
14
18
17
21
30
Rape of a pregnant woman
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Gang Rape
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
Gang rape of a married person
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Gang rape of a child below 12 years of age
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gang rape of a child above 12 years of age
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
Gang rape of a pregnant woman
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Custodial Rape
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
Marital Rape
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Child Molestation
4
4
6
3
1
5
0
Sexual Harassment
2
4
8
18
8
10
3
Incest
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
Indecent exposure
0
1
2
1
1
0
1
Bestiality(sexual contact with an animal)
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Un-natural sex (sexual conduct against
0
2
1
3
0
1
0
47
40
68
71
65
76
64
the order of nature)
Total
Statistical Yearbook 2009 & Statistical Yearbook 2013, Royal Bhutan Police
16
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Total rape cases reported 2007-2013 (RBP)
Figure 1 Total rape cases reported 2007-2013 (RBP)
80
70
68
76
71
65
60
50
64
total rape cases reported
(RBP)
47
40
40
30
20
10
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
6.2 Rape cases from 2008-2014 as per RENEW
Figure 2 Rape cases from 2008-2014 as per RENEW
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Rape cases
17
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
3
5
6
6
5
7
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 7
Analysis of Data and Findings
Since the research is aimed at finding out the main causes and consequences of rape in Bhutan, a
set of questionnaire is distributed to sample size of 150 general public of Thimphu, and an indepth interview is conducted with the officials of RENEW. The data collected from these two
groups are analyzed into two parts described below.
7.1 Sample characteristics of respondents
Table 2 Sample characteristics of respondents
Sample Characteristics (in percentage)
Gender
54.7% respondents are male
45.3% respondents are female
Age
58% respondents are below 25
42% respondents are above 25
2.7% respondents are illiterate
1.3% respondents have primary education
Qualification
22.7% respondents have high school education
18% respondents have diploma
48.7% respondents have degree
6.7% respondents have masters and above education
Table 2 above shows that from the 150 respondents 54.7% are male and 45.3% are female where
58% respondents are below 25 years and 42% respondents are above 25 years. Of the
respondents 2.7% respondents are illiterate, 1.3% respondents have primary education, 22.7%
respondents have high school education, 18% respondents have diploma, 48.7% respondents
have degree and, 6.7% respondents have masters and above qualifications.
18
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.2 Awareness of Rape
Table 3 Heard about sexual abuse or rape
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Valid
Yes
150
100.0
100.0
The 150 respondents selected randomly were asked whether they have heard of sexual abuse or
rape. Table 3 shows that 100% of the respondents have heard of sexual abuse or rape, which
indicates that the issues such as sexual abuse and rape are known to everyone.
7.3 Rape as a criminal offence
Table 4 Rape is a criminal offence
Frequency
Yes
No
Don't
know
Total
Percent
Valid Percent
147
98.0
98.0
1
.7
.7
2
1.3
1.3
150
100.0
100.0
Table 4 shows that of the respondents, 98% is aware that rape is a criminal offence whereas
0.7% disagree that rape is a criminal offence, and the rest 1.3% do not know whether rape is a
criminal offence or not. In other words, out of 150 randomly selected respondents 147 is aware
that rape is a criminal offence with only 1 who is with the perception that rape is not a criminal
offence; 2 respondents are unaware whether rape is a criminal offence or not. This data shows
that the ratio of people who are informed of rape as criminal offence and the one who are
unaware is very vast; more people are informed that rape is a criminal offence.
19
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.4 Rape is becoming a growing concern in Bhutan
Figure 3 Rape is becoming a growing concern in Bhutan
Figure 3 shows that 119 respondents agree that rape is becoming a growing concern in Bhutan,
whereas 17 respondents disagree to the statement and 14 respondents are in dilemma whether
rape is becoming a growing concern or not. If calculated in percentage 79.3% agree, 11.3%
disagree, and 9.3% do not know about the question “Is rape becoming a growing concern in
Bhutan?”
20
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.5 The main causes of rape
The respondents are presented with eight factors that causes rape, and were asked to rate it as per
their thinking which are alcoholism, substance abuse, sexual desire, reading and watching
pornography, indecent dressing, unequal power relations (male domination), revenge and
punishment, and jealousy. These causes are derived from various literature reviewed as
mentioned in the literature review above. The responds of the respondents are presented in the
following tables and figures in detail.
7.5.1 Alcoholism
Figure 4 Alcoholism
Alcoholism (influence both victim
and culprit)
69.3
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Alcoholism (influence
both victim and culprit)
Percent
28.7
.7
Strongly
agree
agree
Neutral
1.3
disagree
Alcohol can be concluded to be strongly influencing factor of rape as per the respondents. 69.3%
of respondents strongly agree that alcohol is the main factor of rape whereas there is no one who
strongly disagree that alcohol can influence both victim and culprit in leading to rape. 28.7 % of
the respondents agree whereas only 1.3% of the respondents disagree to alcohol being the cause
of rape. In between there are 0.7% of the respondents who neither agree nor disagree. As shown
in table the frequency is that 104 respondents strongly agree, 43 respondents agree, 1 is neutral
and 2disagree that alcohol can influence both victim and culprit thereby resulting in rape.
Alcoholism (influence both victim and culprit) Cross tabulation
21
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Gender * Alcoholism (influence both victim and culprit) Cross tabulation
Table 5 Gender * Alcoholism (influence both victim and culprit) Cross tabulation
Alcoholism (influence both victim and culprit)
Strongly agree
agree
Neutral
Total
Disagree
Male
53
26
1
2
82
Female
51
17
0
0
68
104
43
1
2
150
Gender
Total
The above cross tabulation is done in order to find relation in respond to alcohol as the cause of
rape with the gender. Out of 150 respondents 82 respondents are male and 68 respondents are
female. Out of 62 female respondents none disagree that alcohol can influence both victim and
culprit with 51 female respondents strongly agreeing i.e. 75% of female respondents; 17 female
respondents rated agree. Out of 82 male respondents 53 strongly agree that alcoholism is one
factor of rape with 26 male respondents agreeing to it. 1 male respondent and other 2 disagree
that alcohol can lead to rape whereas no female respondents rated in disagree nor in neutral.
7.5.2 Substance abuse
Figure 5 Substance abuse
4%
12%
1%
Substance abuse
41%
Strongly agree
agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
42%
22
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
The second factor of rape asked for rating to the respondents is substance abuse. Substance abuse
goes side by side alcohol as the rating for substance abuse is strongly agreed with 41% of the
respondents and 42% of the respondents agreed that substance abuse can lead to rape i.e., 62 and
63 respondents respectively. The ones who disagree with it is only 4% and 1% of the
respondents strongly disagree with it. 12% of the respondents rated neutral. There are only 6
respondents who disagree and 1 who strongly disagrees, and 18 respondents stand in neutral.
7.5.3 Sexual desire
Figure 6 Sexual desire
Sexual desire
1.3%
Strongly agree
.7%
Agree
2.7%
Neutral
20.0%
Disagree
75.3%
Strongly disagree
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
Sexual desire is another leading factor of rape. As per the respondents, 75.3% of them rated
strongly agree for sexual desire as the main cause of rape with 20% agreeing with it. 2.7% rated
neutral, 0.7% disagree and 1.3% strongly disagree that sexual desire is the cause of rape. Of the
150 respondents 113 rated strongly agree, 30 rated agree, 1 disagree, 2 strongly disagree, and 4
neutral to the question that sexual desire is the main factor of rape.
23
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.5.4 Reading and watching pornography
Figure 7 Reading and watching pornography
Reading and watching pornography
36.7
31.3
20.0
12.0
Strongly agree
agree
Neutral
disagree
Reading and watching pornography is the other factor asked to the respondents to rate it whether
it can be one contributing factor of rape. The respond in the five-level Likert items were 20%
strongly agreeing, 36.7% agreeing, 32.3% rating neutral and 12% disagreeing that reading and
watching pornography can lead to rape. There is no single respondent who strongly disagrees
with reading and watching pornography causing rape. As shown in the table10 out of 150
respondents, 30 strongly agree, 55 agree, 47 are neutral, and 18 disagree.
7.5.5 Indecent dressing
Figure 8 Indecent Dressing
Indecent dressing
34.7
27.3
22.7
10.7
4.7
Strongly agree
24
agree
Neutral
disagree
Strongly disagree
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
The respondents were asked whether indecent dressing can lead to rape or not, and of the 150
respondents 41 respondents strongly agree with 7 respondent strongly disagreeing. 52
respondents agree, 16 respondents disagree with 34 respondents rating neutral. The highest is the
one agreeing with 34.7% and lowest with 4.7% strongly disagreeing. 27.3% of respondents
strongly agree, 22.7% neutral, and 10.7% disagree.
Gender * Indecent dressing Cross tabulation
Table 6 Gender * Indecent dressing Cross tabulation
Indecent dressing
Strongly
agree
Neutral
Total
disagree
agree
Strongly
disagree
Male
23
32
20
5
2
82
Female
18
20
14
11
5
68
41
52
34
16
7
150
Gender
Total
In the cross tabulation between gender and indecent dressing as the cause of rape there are more
male respondents who rated that indecent dressing by women can influence men to rape her. Out
of 82 male respondents 23 respondents strongly agree with 32 respondents agreeing that indecent
dressing causes rape. On the other hand, there are more rating by female respondents in disagree
and strongly disagree Likert scale. 5 out of 68 female respondents strongly disagree to indecent
dressing causing rape and 11 female respondents disagree to it. There are only 2 male
respondents who strongly disagree to indecent dressing as a factor of rape. In general there are
more male respondents voting for indecent dressing by women influencing male to rape whereas
female respondents vote against it supporting that women wearing any desired clothes cannot be
the cause of rape; in total 67% male respondents strongly agree and agree, 55.8% female
respondents strongly agree and agree, 8.5% male respondents strongly disagree and disagree and,
23.5% female respondents strongly disagree and disagree.
25
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.5.6 Unequal power relations (male domination)
Figure 9 Unequal Power Relations
unequal power relations (male
domination)
Strongly agree
agree
Neutral
5%
disagree
Strongly disagree
11%
20%
28%
36%
Figure 9 shows the data of unequal power relations between men and women which can cause
rape. Out of 150 respondents 16 responds that male domination can strongly influence men to
rape women; 42 respondents rated agree; 54 respondents rated neutral; 31 respondents disagree;
7 respondents strongly disagree that male domination and women submission can cause rape.
The respondents who strongly disagree that male domination can lead to rape is very few with
only 5% of the respondents. The respondents rating the highest is in neutral with 36%, and next
28% of the respondents in agreeing that difference in power relation is one of the factors of rape.
21% of the respondents disagree to male domination leading to rape whereas 10% of the
respondents strongly agree to it.
26
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Gender * unequal power relations (male domination) Cross tabulation
Table 7 Gender * unequal power relations (male domination) Cross tabulation
unequal power relations (male domination)
Strongly
agree
Neutral
disagree
agree
Total
Strongly
disagree
Male
2
20
30
24
6
82
14
22
24
7
1
68
16
42
54
31
7
150
Gender
Female
Total
As per cross tabulation of gender and unequal power relations between men and women, there
are more number of female respondents supporting that male domination can cause rape whereas
more male respondents against male domination and female submission as the cause of rape. Out
of 82 male respondents only 2 respondents strongly agree against 14 female respondents out of
68 respondents. 24 male respondents disagree that rape is caused by male domination whereas
only 7 female respondents disagree with it. Only 1 female respondent strongly disagree against 6
male respondents strongly disagreeing.
7.5.7 Revenge and punishment
Figure 10 Revenge and Punishment
40.0
35.3
26.7
24.7
percent
20.0
6.7
6.7
0.0
Strongly
agree
27
agree
Neutral
disgree
Strongly
disagree
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
The responds of the Likert scale items on the factor- revenge and punishment is very similar. The
respondents who strongly agree and strongly disagree is 6.7% with 10 respondents each. The
respondents agreeing and disagreeing is 26.7% and 24.7% with 40 and 37 respondents
respectively. The highest rating is in neutral with 35.3% with 53 respondents.
7.5.8 Jealousy
Figure 11 Jealousy
Jealousy Percent
11.3
Strongly disagree
24.7
Disagree
34.7
Neutral
22.7
agree
6.7
Strongly agree
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
Out of 150 randomly selected respondents, the highest rating is in neutral with 52 in number, and
least with 10 respondents strongly agreeing that jealousy can cause rape. 34 respondents agree
that rape can be because of jealousy whereas more number of respondents i.e. 37 of them
disagree with it. 17 respondents strongly disagree that rape is caused due to rape. If calculated in
percentage- 11.3% of respondents strongly disagree, 24.7% of respondents disagree, 34.7% of
respondents are neutral, 22.7% of the respondents agree, and 6.7% of the respondents strongly
agree.
28
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.6 The main consequences of rape
The respondents are asked to rate the consequences of rape according to the Likert scale items
i.e. strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. The consequences presented to
respondents are stigmatization in the society, abuse alcohol, drug abuse behavior, pregnancy,
depression and trauma, suicidal tendency and, thoughts of revenge and nightmares. These
consequences are derived from the reviewed literature. The data of these consequences are
shown in detail in the following tables and graphs.
7.6.1 Stigmatization in the society
Stigmatization in the society is the ultimate consequence of rape as per the respondents with 83
respondents rating strongly agreeing and 43 respondents agreeing to it. Of 150 respondents only
3 disagree and another 3strongly disagree thereby remaining 18 rated neutral.
Figure 12 Stigmatization in the Society
Stigmatization in the society
Strongly agree
agree
Neutral
disgree
Strongly disagree
2% 2%
12%
55%
29%
As shown in the above figure 13 55% of respondents strongly agree, 29% of respondents agree,
12% of respondents rated neutral, 2% each disagree and strongly disagree that rape can lead to
stigmatization in the society.
29
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.6.2 Abuse alcohol
Alcoholism is the other consequence of rape as presented to respondents. Of the respondents, 46
strongly agree that victims have high chance of going into alcohol with 73 respondents agreeing
to it. There are 25 respondents who rated neutral, 6 respondents disagree and no one strongly
disagreeing to alcohol as the consequence of rape.
Figure 13 Abuse Alcohol
Abuse alcohol
Abuse alcohol Percent
48.7
30.7
16.7
4.0
Strongly agree
agree
Neutral
disagree
If presented in percentage, highest is respondents rating agree with 48.7%, second 30.7% of
respondents strongly agreeing, third 16.7% rating neutral, and last 4% of respondents disagreeing
that alcoholism could be one of the consequences of rape.
30
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.6.3 Drug abuse behavior
Out of 150 respondents, the maximum numbers of respondents agree that victims can develop
drug abuse behaviors with 78 respondents and 34 respondents rated strongly agree.2 respondents
strongly disagree that drug abuse can be aftermath of rape with 6 more respondents disagreeing.
30 respondents rated for neutral.
Figure 14 Drug Abuse Behaviors
Drug abuse behavior Percent
agree, 52.0
60.0
percent
50.0
40.0
Neutral, 20.0
30.0
20.0
Strongly agree,
22.7
10.0
disagree, 4.0
Strongly disagree,
1.3
0.0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
drug abuse
The victims can show drug abuse behavior as per the respondents with 52% agreeing with it and
22.7% of respondents strongly agreeing. 4% of respondents disagree and 1.3% strongly disagree
and 20% of respondents rated neutral.
31
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.6.4 Pregnancy
Figure 15 Pregnancy
50.0
percent
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Strongly
agree
Pregnancy Percent
agree
Strongly
agree
48.0
Neutral
disagree
Strongly
disagree
agree
Neutral
disagree
33.3
13.3
3.3
Strongly
disagree
2.0
The fourth consequence of rape presented to the respondents is pregnancy. 48% respondents
strongly agree that rape can lead to pregnancy, and 33.3% respondents too agree with it. 3.3% of
respondents disagree that rape can cause pregnancy with 2% of respondents strongly disagreeing
to it. 13.3% of respondents rated neutral.
7.6.5 Depression and trauma
95 respondents out of 150 respondents strongly agree that aftermath of rape is depression and
trauma with another 36 respondents agreeing to it. 11 respondents rated neutral. Only 3
respondents disagree and another 5 respondents strongly disagree that depression and trauma are
not really the consequences of rape. Figure 15 below shows the percentage illustration of the
respondents of depression and trauma as aftermath of rape to victims.
32
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Figure 16 Depression and Trauma
Depression and trauma
63.3
24.0
7.3
Strongly agree
agree
Neutral
2.0
3.3
disagree
Strongly
disagree
Depression and trauma Percent
63.3% of respondents strongly agree, 24% of respondents agree, 7.3% of respondents rated
neutral, 2% of respondents disagree, and 3.3% of respondents strongly disagree that one
consequence of rape could be depression and trauma.
7.6.6 Suicidal tendency
Figure 17 Suicidal tendency
Suicidal tendency Percent
disagree
3%
Neutral
11%
Strongly
disagree
4%
Strongly agree
56%
agree
26%
33
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
The respondents are asked whether suicide could be one consequence of rape. 56% of
respondents strongly agree that rape can build suicidal tendency in victims with 26% of
respondents agreeing to it. 11% of respondents rated neutral with 3% of respondents disagreeing
and 4% of respondents strongly disagreeing that rape lead to inculcating suicidal tendency.
7.6.7 Thought of revenge and nightmares
Table 18 Thoughts of Revenge and Nightmares
As shown in the above table 22 and figure 19 thoughts of revenge and nightmares were rated by
the respondents as the consequences of rape and the result is 54 respondents strongly agreeing,
44 respondents agreeing, 31 respondents neutral, 11 respondents disagreeing, 10 respondents
strongly disagreeing. In percentage form: strongly agree- 36%, agree- 29.3%, neutral- 20.7%,
disagree-7.3%, and strongly disagree-6.7% of respondents.
34
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.7 Have you ever been sexually abused?
Figure 19 Have you ever been sexually abused?
82.7
No
17.3
Yes
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
Have you ever been sexually abused? Percent
The respondents are asked whether they have been sexually abused in their life time whether
verbally or physically. Table 5 shows that the ones who have been sexually abused in their life is
very few with only 17.3% compared to the ones who have never been sexually abused with
82.7% i.e., 26 and 124 respondents respectively. Figure 3 below shows the graphical
representation of the respondents whether they have been sexually abused be it verbally or
physically in their life.
35
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.7.1 If yes, at what age?
Table 8 If yes, at what age?
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Missing
Total
15.00
2
1.3
9.5
9.5
16.00
1
.7
4.8
14.3
17.00
1
.7
4.8
19.0
18.00
5
3.3
23.8
42.9
19.00
2
1.3
9.5
52.4
20.00
4
2.7
19.0
71.4
21.00
5
3.3
23.8
95.2
24.00
1
.7
4.8
100.0
Total
21
14.0
100.0
129
86.0
150
100.0
System
If the respondents have ever been sexually abused (verbally or physically) they were asked to
mention the detail like at what age was they sexually abused. Out of 150 respondents only 26
respondents rated yes as shown in table 23, and out of which only 21 of the respondents
mentioned the age at when they were sexually abused. The age ranges from 15 to 24. The mean,
median and mode of the ages are shown in the table below.
36
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Table 9 Statistics
If yes, at what age?
Valid
21
N
Missing
129
Mean
19.0476
Median
19.0000
18.00a
Mode
a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown
Out of 26 respondents who are sexually abused only 21 is valid and 5 are missing because they
do not remember the age at which they were abused and out of 150 respondents124 respondents
have never been sexually abused in their life . The mean of the age the respondents are sexually
abused be it verbally or physically is 19. The median is also 19 and the mode is 18.
7.8 Does a father rape his own daughter?
Figure 20. Does a father rape his own daughter?
The respondents
Does a father rape his own daughter?
were asked about
relationship
between a father
46.0
and a daughter i.e.,
54.0
Yes
whether a father
No
can rape his own
daughter or not,
and the above
Figure 21 shows
that 54% responds
37
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
that a father can rape his own child, and 46% responds that a father cannot rape his own child. Of
the 150 respondents 54% agree and 46% disagree with the question- can a father rape his
daughter?
7.9 Should a rapist be punished?
Figure 21 Should a rapist be punished?
When the respondents are asked about whether a rapist should be punished or not, 95% of them
agree that they should be punished whereas 4% of the respondents think that the rapists should
38
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
not be punished; 114 respondents want the rapists to be punished and 6 of the respondents
disagree.
7.9.1 How should rapists be punished?
Of the 96% of respondents agreeing that rapists should be punished they were asked details of
how should rapists be punished according to them.
The prominent suggestions received are:
 The deadliest brutal punishment such as death penalty
 Life imprisonment
 Should be exposed unclothed in the public
 Should be made known to public through media
 Electrocution
 Capital punishment
 Punishment according to the penal code of Bhutan.
 Severe penalty as that of chorten vandalism and murder.
 Genital part should be destroyed
39
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
7.10 Can Rape be prevented?
Figure 22 Can rape be prevented?
89.3
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
10.7
20.0
10.0
0.0
Yes
No
Of the 150 respondents, 134 agree that rape can be prevented and 16 respond that rape cannot be
prevented i.e. 89.3% and 10.7% respectively.
40
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 8
Conclusion
The research “causes and consequences of rape in Bhutan”, gives an insight about what are the
possible reasons behind rape, and what could be the consequences aftermath of rape. Most of the
people (as per the data analyzed) have heard about rape (100% of the respondents) and are
conscious that rape is becoming a growing concern (79.3% of the respondents).
In general people agree that the main causes of rape are alcoholism, substance abuse, sexual
ranking
causes
Percentage of
respondents
agreeing
1
alcoholism
98%
desire, reading and watching
pornography
dressing.
Sexual desire
95.3%
Least
indecent
respondents
think that rape can be caused by
unequal
between
2
and,
power
men
relations
and
women,
revenge and punishment and,
jealousy. The study found that
3
Substance abuse
83.3%
98 % of respondents agree that
alcohol is the main cause of
4
Indecent dressing
62%
rape.
Alcohol
consumption
cannot just influence the culprit
5
Reading and watching
56.7%
pornography
from raping someone but the
victim
themselves
under
influence of alcohol have high
6
Unequal power relations
38.7%
risk of getting raped as per the
respondents.
7
Revenge and punishment
33.4%
8
Jealousy
29.4%
83.3%
of
respondents agree that substance
abuse can lead to rape, 95.3% of
respondents agree to sexual
desire, 56.7% of respondents
41
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
agree to reading and watching pornography, 62% of respondents agree to indecent dressing,
38.7% of respondents agree to unequal power relations between men and women, 33.4% of
respondents agree to revenge and punishment and, 29.4% of respondents agree to jealousy.
The other factors found out are the economical background (poverty), lack of stringent laws
Ranking
Consequences
Percentage
1
Depression and
87.3%
against the abusers and, dependency of
the victim to the perpetrator. The study
also found that people are on average
trauma
2
Stigmatization in the
being sexually abused during their teens
i.e., at the age of 19 as per the mean
84%
calculated from data collected. Highly
educated or not, many people are so
society
concerned about rape that they think a
3
Suicidal tendency
82%
father would rape his own daughter with
54% of respondents agreeing to it.
4
Pregnancy
81.3%
As
per
the
data
analyzed
the
consequences are stigmatization in the
5
Alcohol Consumption
79.4%
society,
abuse
alcohol,
drug
abuse
behavior, pregnancy, depression and
6
Drug Abuse
74.7%
trauma, suicidal tendency and, thoughts
of revenge and nightmares. 84% of the
respondents agree that stigmatization in the society is one of the consequences of rape, 79.4% of
the respondents agree to alcohol consumption as the aftermath of rape, 74.7% of the respondents
agree to drug abuse, 81.3% of the respondents agree to pregnancy, 87.3% of the respondents
agree to depression and trauma, 82% of the respondents agree to suicidal tendency in victim and,
65.3% of the respondents agree to thoughts of revenge and nightmares.
The study also substantiates that there are few people who think that rape cannot be prevented
with 10.7% of the respondents denying the prevention whereas 89.3% of respondents accept that
rape is preventable if effective precautions are taken beforehand.
42
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Chapter 9
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the study recommends the following:
 The organizations such as RENEW which deals with issues of rape should look into the
causes and consequences of rape, and try to educate people so that rape can be controlled.
 Almost all the people have heard of rape but not all know that rape is a criminal offence
(0.7% of the respondents think that rape is not a criminal offence and, 1.3% of the
respondents do not know whether rape is a criminal offence or not), so it is responsibility
of the concerned group such as RENEW, RBP, NCWC and other organizations who deal
with rape issues to further educate general public about rape, it’s causes and
consequences and, preventions to resist rape.
 Besides law, men and women are recommended to take their own precautions such as:

Both men and women should avoid consumption of alcohol and substance abuse

Women should avoid staying out late at night

Going to places such as drayangs and parties should be avoided.

Avoid being alone and always be in company

Women should wear decent dress

Avoid company of strangers

Safety weapons should be always carried
 The penalty for the rapist as per the penal code of Bhutan should be revised and made
severe so that people will fear the notion of rape.
43
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Reference
Aryee, E. (2013). I was raped: the psychological effects of rape among Liberian & Ghanaian
women in Ghana. Retrieved from
https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/35219/1/12.1.Aryee.pdf
Bloom, S.L. (2003). Understanding the impact of sexual assault: the nature of traumatic
experience. In A. Giardino, E. Datner, & J. Asher (Ed.), Sexual assault: victimization
across the lifespan (PP. 405‐ 432). Missouri: Medical Publishing
Boyd, C. (2011). The impact of sexual assault on women. Melbourne: Australian Centre for the
Study of Sexual Assault.
Brown, S. (2003). Feminist history of Rape. Retrieved from
http://www.safeplaceolympia.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/A-Feminist-History-ofRape.pdf
Crake, M. (n.d.). Who is the rapist? Retrieved from
http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/proceedings/20/crake.pdf
Crowell, N.A., & Burgess, A.W. (1996). Understanding violence against women.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Declue, G. (2005). [Review of the book The causes of rape: Understanding individual
differences in male propensity for sexual aggression, by Martin L. Lalumiere, Grant T.
Harris,Vernon L. Quinsey,& Marnie E. Rice, and Preventing Sexual Violence: How
society should cope with sex offenders, by John Q. LaFord].the Journal of Psychiatry &
Law, 33.
44
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Defining a rape culture. (2014). Retrieved from
http://sparkleallday.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/rapeculture-1.pdf
Dema, T. 2014. 13 minors raped in five months. Kuensel. Retrieved from
http://www.kuenselonline.com/13-minors-raped-in-five-months/#.VIEuTTGUdBY
Esere, M.O., Idowu, A. I., Durosaro, I. A., & Omotosho, J. A. (2009). Causes and consequences
of intimate partner rape and violence: Experiences of victims in Lagos, Nigeria, Journal of
AIDS and HIV Research, 1(1), 001-007.
Hagen, K.T. (2010). The nature and psychosocial consequences of war rape for individuals and
communities, International Journal of Psychological Studies, 2(2), 14-25.
Hirschowitz, R., Worku, S., & Orkin, M. (2000). Quantitative research findings on rape in South
Africa. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
Kilpatrick, D.G. (2004). What is violence against women: Defining and measuring the problem.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 1209-1234.
Littleton, H., & Breitkopf, C. R. (2006). Coping with the experience of rape. Psychology of
Women Quarterly, 30, 106–116.
Mabasa, T. (2012). Understanding and preventing rape: perceptions of police officers in inner
city Johannesburg. Retrieved from
http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/7188/June%20resubmittion%202.pdf
?sequence=2
McCabe, M.P. & Wauchope, M. (2005). Behavioural characteristics of rapists. Retrieved from
http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Behavioural_Characteristics_of_Rapists.pdf
45
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
McDonald, M. (1994). Gender, drink and drugs. Oxford: Berg Publishers.
Namgyel, T. (2014). Rapists receives 9 years and 6 months term. Kuensel. Retrieved from
http://www.kuenselonline.com/rapist-receives-9-years-and-6-monthsterm/#.VIEwMjGUdBY
RBP. (2013). Statistical yearbook 2013. Thimphu: Kuensel Corporation Ltd.
The White House Council on Women and Girls. (2014). Rape and sexual assault: a renewed call
to action. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/202801804/RAPE-AND-SEXUALASSAULT-A-RENEWED-CALL-TO-ACTION-The-White-House-Council-on-Womenand-Girls-January-2014
Thornhill, R. & Palmer, C.T. (2001). The evolutionary biology of rape. Retrieved from
http://90.146.8.18/en/archiv_files/20001/E2000_118.pdf
Tjaden, P & Thoennes, N. (2006). Extent , nature, and consequences of rape victimization:
Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Retrieved from
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/210346.pdf
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2003). Gender-based violence against
refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons. Retrieved from
http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/gl_sgbv03.pdf
Vicary, J.R., Kingman, L.R & Harkness, W.L. (1995). Risk factors associated with date
rape and sexual assault of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 18 (3), 289306.
Wangdi, T. (2014). Unbridled libido fetches 45 days in prison. Kuensel. Retrieved from
http://www.kuenselonline.com/unbridled-libido-fetches-45-days-in-prison/
46
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Appendices
Questionnaire
Dear respondent,
I am a post graduate student in Public Administration from the Royal Institute of Management, Semtokha,
Thimphu. I am conducting a research on “the causes and consequences of rape in Bhutan” as a partial
fulfillment of the course. I would like to request you to kindly complete this questionnaire. This is solely
for academic purpose and all personal information provided will be kept confidential. If you have any
queries regarding this research, please contact me at dechen.kinzang23@gmail.com.
1. Demographics
a) Gender:
Male
female
b) Which age group do you belong to?
<25 years old
>25 years old
c) Please tick ( √ ) the highest year of school completed:
Illiterate
Certificate
Primary
Diploma
High school
Degree
Masters and above
2. Have you heard of sexual abuse or rape?
Yes
47
No
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
3. Do you know rape is a criminal offence? (check √ only one)
Yes
Don’t know
No
4. Do you think rape is becoming a growing concern in Bhutan? (check √ only one)
Yes
Don’t know
No
If yes Why? (Mention at least one) ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Which of the following factors according to you are the main causes of rape?
(Place a tick ( √ ) in the relevant box)
Questions
Strongly
agree
Alcoholism (influence
both victim and culprit)
Substance abuse
Sexual desire
Reading and watching
pornography
Indecent dressing
48
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Unequal power relations
(male domination)
Revenge and punishment
Jealousy
6. Why do men rape? Any reason…
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Which of the following are the consequences of rape according to you?
Place a tick ( √ ) in the relevant box)
Questions
Strongly
agree
stigmatization in the
society
Abuse alcohol
Drug abuse behavior
Pregnancy
Depression and trauma
49
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
Suicidal tendency
Thoughts of revenge and
nightmares
8. What could be the consequences of rape according to you? (Mention at least one)
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
9. Have you ever been sexually abused (verbally or physically) in your life?
Yes
No
If yes, when (at what age)?
……………………………………………………………………………………
10. Does a father rape his own daughter (s)?
Yes
No
11. Should a rapist be punished?
Yes
No
If yes how (according to you)?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
If no why (Mention at least one reason)?
50
Causes and Consequences of Rape in Bhutan
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
12. Can rape be prevented?
Yes
No
13. What are the best steps women can take to prevent being raped? (Mention at least one)
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………
Thank you for your participation.
51