Chapter 6: Models for explaining
human memory
Learning activity suggested answers
Learning Activity 6.1 (p. 237)
1
Can you think of any activity you do that does not depend on memory? If so, give an example.
Consider reflexes and involuntary physiological responses under the control of the autonomic
nervous system.
2
Do you believe that you could you learn if you couldn’t remember? Could you remember if you
couldn’t learn? Briefly explain each of your answers.
Generally learning cannot occur without memory and vice versa, i.e. learning requires retention
of prior experience and memory requires stored information. Note that sensory memory may
not require learning, e.g. if viewed as a memory type rather than a memory process or subsystem.
Discuss student answers to clarify the interrelatedness and interdependence of learning and
memory.
3
Suggest an explanation of why we don’t remember everything that happens in our lives.
Consider:
•
the roles of attention and selective attention in filtering diverse array of incoming
information
•
the physiological or neurological limit that the storage capacity of long-term memory (LTM)
may have
•
case studies that provide evidence of difficulties in coping with everyday life or
dysfunction, attributable to ‘remembering everything’
•
theories of forgetting, e.g. motivated forgetting, decay.
Learning Activity 6.2 (p. 239)
1
How is memory commonly defined in psychology?
Definition should refer to memory as an active information processing system, e.g. the storage
and retrieval of information acquired through learning (rather than an inactive/passive process,
e.g. an internal record or representation of learnt information or of some prior event or
experience).
2
a
Describe the processes of encoding, storage and retrieval.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
b
•
Encoding: converting information into a useable form or ‘code’ so that it can enter and
be stored in memory.
•
Storage: retention of information over time.
•
Retrieval: locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are
consciously aware of it.
Explain the interrelationship between these processes with reference to an example.
Explanation should refer to dependence of storage on encoding and retrieval on storage
and encoding, i.e. the way information is encoded determines exactly what and how that
information is stored, which in turn can limit what can subsequently be retrieved. If any
one of these processes fails, memory will fail.
Student examples should demonstrate understanding of the interrelationships between
these processes and may refer to effective memory and/or memory failure.
c
3
Explain whether memory is possible without any one of these processes.
•
No encoding: memory is impossible because information cannot be processed in the
neurological form required for storage/retention (e.g. engram/memory trace); the
way information is encoded determines exactly what and how that information is
stored.
•
No storage: memory is impossible because information cannot be retained (anywhere
in the brain).
•
No retrieval: memory is impossible because information cannot be recovered (from
wherever it would be stored) and brought into conscious awareness.
Explain why comparing human memory to information-processing by a computer may
misrepresent or oversimplify human memory.
Explanation may refer to:
4
•
historical context of the analogy, e.g. following the increasing use and understanding of
computers in the 1960s, psychologists who adopted the cognitive perspective to explaining
mental processes and behaviour likened human memory to information-processing by a
computer
•
contemporary view of human memory, e.g. a much more sophisticated and an active,
multi-faceted process comprising different memory systems for different types of
information.
Extension activity – online question.
Learning Activity 6.3 (p. 241)
1
Explain the meaning of the term model of memory.
model of memory: used to represent, describe and explain memory and its components and
processes, typically as visual diagrams with boxes to represent components and arrows to
represent the movement of information from one component to another.
2
Briefly describe the Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of memory.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model: represents memory as consisting of three distinguishable
components (i.e. stores) called the sensory register, the short-term store (or ‘temporary
working memory’) and the long-term store, though which information is transferred and with
each component representing a place where information is encoded, stored/retained and
processed.
3
a
b
Distinguish between structural features and control processes in memory, with reference
to examples.
•
Structural features: the permanent, built-in fixed features of memory that do not vary
from one situation to another, e.g. the three different stores and their function,
storage capacity and the duration of each component.
•
Control processes: a memory process that is under the conscious ‘control’ of the
individual (i.e. not a built-in fixed feature) and is selected and used by the individual
depending on the situation/what the individual is doing or needs to do, e.g. attention,
rehearsal and retrieval.
Explain whether each of the following is a structural feature or control process:
i
deciding whether retrieved information is correct: control process, i.e. involves
conscious awareness/control
ii
a memory trace: structural feature, i.e. a built-in physical feature representing a
memory
iii
encoding: may be either or a combination of both, e.g. structural feature—
physiological processing of information into a form that can be used by memory;
control process—a conscious process such as using elaborative rehearsal to enhance
encoding and storage.
Learning Activity 6.4 (p. 245)
Evaluation of research by Sperling (1960)
Evaluate Sperling’s (1960) experiment on iconic memory. You may present your evaluation as
an annotated diagram (e.g., as a flowchart). You are required to:
1
Construct a research hypothesis that could have been tested by the procedures used in the
experiment.
Example:
Participants who use a partial report system where high, medium and low tone is associated
with reporting the top, medium and bottom row of letters respectively. will recall more letters
from a briefly presented 3-by-4 visual array than participants who simply report as many letters
as they can see after the array is removed without a tone used to cue response.
2
State the operationalised IV(s) and DV(s).
IV: partial report system where high, medium and low tone is used to cue reporting of the top,
medium and bottom row of letters respectively.
DV: number of letters accurately recalled
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
3
Name the experimental design.
repeated-measures design
4
Briefly state the results obtained.
Participants who used the partial report system repeated any row of letters with perfect
accuracy.
(Note that, overall, participants using the partial report system were able to report about 75%
of the letters, which was about double the number of letters recalled by participants who
simply reported as many letters as they could see after the array was removed.)
5
a
If the results were shown to be statistically significant with p ≤ 0.05, what would this
mean?
Meaning of p ≤ 0.05: the difference in the results obtained for the two groups of
participants is due to the IV and probably not due to chance factors; or, the difference in
the results is a true difference that can be said to be due to the IV because the probability
that the difference might be due to chance is at an acceptable level of 5 or fewer times in
100.
b
Would the results be more meaningful with p ≤ 0.01? Explain your answer.
p ≤ 0.01: more meaningful because the probability that the difference might be due to
chance is at a lower level of 1 or fewer times in 100.
6
7
Briefly state a conclusion based on the results obtained.
•
The results support the hypothesis that participants who use a partial report system will
recall more letters from a briefly presented 3-by-4 visual array than participants who
simply report as many letters as they can see after the array was removed.
•
It was found that participants who used a partial report system recalled significantly more
letters from a briefly presented 3-by-4 visual array than did participants who simply
reported as many letters as they could see after the array was removed. These results
support the hypothesis.
•
The results suggest that an image of all of the letters (that is, the whole pattern) had been
momentarily stored in iconic memory after the pattern left the screen.
Comment on the extent to which the results can be generalised.
The study is commonly described as a classic or influential study that used valid procedures and
was strictly controlled. Note that Sperling actually used five participants only, four of whom
were university students and the other one of Sperling’s colleagues. All participants took part in
12 sessions (3 per week) involving hundreds of trials.
Students should consider providing information about potential imitations of the research
sample and examine subsequent research studies that replicated Sperling’s experiments with
other groups of participants and confirmed his findings.
Learning Activity 6.5 (p. 249)
1
What is sensory memory?
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
Sensory memory is the entry point of memory, the memory system in which incoming sensory
information is received and temporarily retained in its original sensory form for a very brief
period of time.
2
Distinguish between the terms sensory memory and sensory register.
Distinction should refer to sensory memory as the construct used to generally refer to the store
for all types of incoming sensory information and to sensory register as the construct used to
refer to the store for each specific type of sensory information. In addition, each register has
other distinguishable features, e.g. encoding process, storage duration.
3
Why can sensory memory be described as a memory system or sub-system rather than a
perceptual system?
Explanation should refer to sensory memory having a storage/retention function for incoming
sensory information and holding the information in its raw form, whereas a perceptual system
receives and processes incoming sensory information to interpret the raw information in a
meaningful way.
4
a
b
5
Define iconic memory and echoic memory with reference to examples that help clarify the
definitions.
•
Iconic memory: visual sensory memory that stores visual images in their original
sensory form for about 0.2–0.4 seconds.
•
Echoic memory: auditory sensory memory that stores sounds in their original sensory
form for about 3–4 seconds.
Describe the main distinguishing characteristics of iconic and echoic memory, ensuring you
refer to the type of sensory information received and duration of storage.
Sensory register
Type of sensory information
Duration of storage
Iconic memory
visual
0.2–0.4 seconds
Echoic memory
auditory
3–4 seconds
In what way might sensory memory have an adaptive function and assist us in adjusting to
ongoing environmental change?
Example:
Sensory memory is adaptive in that it acts as a store where incoming sensory information can
be filtered to keep out irrelevant and unimportant information, thereby preventing clutter or
information overload. If we had to process all sensory information reaching us from the
environment, this could result in inefficiencies in everyday functioning and we would find the
world very confusing. By filtering out irrelevant information, we can attend to sensory
information that may threaten our wellbeing. Thus sensory memory has an adaptive function
enhancing our survival.
6
Is information in sensory memory subject to an encoding process? Explain your answer.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
Information in sensory memory is believed to be held in its raw sensory form and not subject to
an encoding process, unless attended to. Following attention, information must be converted
into a transmissible and/or storable form.
7
a
What is required for information to transfer from sensory memory to STM?
Explanation should refer to the crucial role of attention to specific sensory information
resulting in transfer to the short-term memory (STM).
b
What happens to information that is not transferred to STM?
It is lost quickly – within seconds at most.
Learning Activity 6.6 (p. 252)
1
Define short-term memory (STM).
Short-term memory is a memory system with limited storage capacity and duration, in which
information is stored for a relatively short period of time, unless renewed in some way. (Now
more commonly referred to as working memory or used interchangeably with working
memory.)
2
a
What is the storage capacity of STM?
seven items, plus or minus two (7 ± 2 items)
b
Give an example of experimental research that could be conducted to test the capacity of
STM.
Discuss classic experimental paradigms using digit span tests.
3
a
What is the storage duration of STM?
about 18 seconds, if information is not rehearsed or used in some way (and rarely beyond
30 seconds)
b
Give an example of experimental research that could be conducted to test the storage
duration of STM.
An example is Margaret and Lloyd Peterson’s (1959) classic experiment using trigrams.
•
Margaret and Lloyd Peterson (1959) gave trigrams to participants to memorise.
•
Immediately after the trigrams' presentation, participants were given an interference
task and were instructed to start counting backwards by threes from an arbitrary
three-digit number, preventing rehearsal of the trigrams.
•
Following a time interval that varied from three to 18 seconds, a light was used to
signal that participants were required to recall the trigrams.
•
Results showed that the longer the interval, the less likely a participant was to
accurately recall the trigrams and that by 18 seconds after the trigrams' presentation,
participants had forgotten almost all of them.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
•
4
When participants did not have to count backwards, their performance was much
better, possibly because they were rehearsing the items to themselves.
In what ways is STM like sensory memory and unlike sensory memory?
Similarities include:
•
limited storage duration
•
lost if not attended to or used in some way.
Differences include:
•
not consciously aware of any information in sensory memory but consciously aware of all
information in STM
•
no encoding in sensory memory but encoding in STM
•
unlimited storage capacity of sensory memory but limited storage capacity of STM
•
information is stored as an exact replica in sensory memory but as an encoding of it in STM
(e.g. a word or number)
•
information cannot be manipulated in sensory memory but can be manipulated in STM
•
information cannot be retrieved from LTM and stored in sensory memory but can be
retrieved from LTM and stored in STM.
a
Distinguish between sensory memory and short-term memory with reference to conscious
awareness.
5
sensory memory: not consciously awareness of information
short term memory: consciously awareness of information
b
Explain why STM can be described as the ‘seat of consciousness’ but neither sensory
memory nor LTM can be described in this way.
Explanation should refer to STM holding all the information of which we are consciously
aware at any point in time and that this is the ‘place’ where all conscious perceiving,
feeling, thinking, reasoning and so on take place. We are not consciously aware of any
information in either sensory memory or LTM. STM also enables us to consciously combine
and use information from sensory memory and LTM.
6
a
Explain why STM is described as working memory.
Explanation should refer to STM being described as working memory because of its
emphasis on the active part of memory where information we are consciously aware of is
actively ‘worked on’ in a variety of ways.
b
In your opinion, is short-term memory or working memory the more appropriate term to
describe the memory system that receives information from both sensory memory and
LTM? Explain your answer.
Discuss student answers and clarify conceptual understanding.
7
Describe two ways in which information is frequently lost from STM.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
STM memory loss primarily occurs through:
8
•
decay—when lost through disuse; and
•
displacement—when pushed out to make room for new information.
You walk from one room to another to pick something up, and you arrive forgetting why you
went to the room. You realise that you were thinking about something else and this made you
forget the reason for being in the room. Explain why this forgetting occurred in terms of STM
capacity and duration.
Generally, while thinking about something else, new information has entered STM and
displaced the information in STM about what needed to be picked up, or, while thinking about
something else, the required information was lost or faded through disuse, lack of rehearsal etc.
STM capacity: given that STM has a limited capacity of 7 ±2 items of information, thinking must
have comprised enough items (e.g. chunks of thoughts) to have exceeded the capacity or STM.
STM duration: given that STM has a storage duration of about 18 seconds, the reason for going
to the room would not have been thought about or rehearsed for at least this long and was lost
or faded from STM through disuse
Learning Activity 6.8 (p. 255)
1
Describe two key roles of rehearsal in memory.
Roles include:
•
maintenance of information in STM
•
transfer of information from STM to LTM
•
to aid LTM storage and retrieval
a
Define the terms maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.
2
b
•
Maintenance rehearsal: continual repetition of information (vocally or sub-vocally) to
retain for as long as required.
•
Elaborative rehearsal: the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with
information already stored in memory or with other new information to aid in its
storage and retrieval from LTM.
Identify two important characteristics that distinguish these two forms of rehearsal.
Distinctions include:
•
maintenance rehearsal involves simple repetition of information, whereas elaborative
rehearsal is a more active and effortful process than maintenance rehearsal
•
elaborative rehearsal involves focusing on the meaning of information, whereas
maintenance rehearsal does not
•
maintenance rehearsal does not assist encoding for LTM storage, whereas elaborative
rehearsal does
•
elaborative rehearsal is more effective for longer-lasting LTM storage a than
maintenance rehearsal
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
•
3
elaborative rehearsal is better assists LTM retrieval a than does maintenance rehearsal
Explain why elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal in enhancing
retention of information in LTM.
Explanation should refer to
4
•
Elaborative rehearsal helping to ensure that information is encoded well by linking new tobe-remembered information in a meaningful way with information that is already stored in
LTM (to aid in its storage and retrieval from LTM).
•
Maintenance rehearsal, on the other hand, does not create the same depth of meaning or
excellence in encoding.
Describe three different ways to elaborate information.
Ways include:
5
•
creating more associations: the more associations made between to-be-remembered
information and the information already in LTM, the more likely the information will be
retained, e.g. see Figure 6.21
•
‘flesh out’ to-be-remembered information, e.g. identify finer details and ensure that these
are meaningful by associating one or more of the key details with information already in
LTM
•
self-referencing: personalise the information by relating new information to personal
experiences or situations in some way, e.g. remembering the location of the frontal lobe by
linking it to the personal experience of a forehead bump.
Apply your understanding of maintenance and elaborative rehearsal to respond to the following
question a teacher was asked by a student: ‘Is it best to read my notes over and over again, or is
there something else I could do to study for the exam?’ Give two reasons for your answer.
•
Reading notes is a good starting point and can guide you in revision. During reading, you
can recognise which concepts are remembered quickly, and which concepts you draw a
blank on, or cannot explain to yourself satisfactorily.
•
It is not enough to just read over concepts, you need to be able to apply the things that you
have learned. Try creating links to your own experiences, to what you already know and
keep adding details and relationships to concepts so that you may better explain concepts
to yourself/a friend/ parent/teacher/revision partner.
Learning Activity 6.10 (p. 258)
1
a
Describe the serial position effect.
serial position effect: a research finding that free recall of items in a list tends to be best for
items at the end, then the beginning, and worst for items around the middle.
b
What are the primacy and recency effects? Why do they occur?
•
primacy effect: the serial position effect of superior recall for items at the beginning of
a list; due to first few items receiving more attention and rehearsal than other items
and have been transferred to LTM.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
•
c
recency effect: the serial position effect of superior recall for items at the end of a list;
due to last few items still in STM.
Why are items in the middle of a serial list recalled least?
Explanation should refer to differences between STM and LTM, i.e. items around the
middle of a list are presented too late to be adequately rehearsed and transferred into LTM
and too early to be held in STM without rehearsal, so they are more likely to be forgotten
(unless they are distinctive in some way).
2
What implications does the serial position effect have for:
a
a prosecutor or barrister presenting their case to a jury?
The order of presentation of information to be recalled by the jury may be important. It
may be better to present main points to the jury either at the beginning or at the end of
their address rather than in the middle, due to superior recall associated with recency
effect. The potential importance of a summation of key points on which to end the address
(with no further information) should also be considered.
b
three politicians before an election, each delivering a brief policy speech one after the
other on television?
The order of presentation of policy speeches viewers are encouraged to remember may be
important. It may be better to present last due to superior recall associated with recency
effect. It is best to avoid being the second/middle speaker as serial position effect suggests
that those policies will be recalled worst. The order of presentation of key points in
individual speeches should also be considered, as should the importance of a summation of
key points on which to end (with no further information).
c
a potential employee deciding on their interview time when allowed to choose from an
interview schedule?
In order to be remembered best, serial position effect suggests choosing last ahead of first,
with around the middle the lowest priority. It may increase the likelihood of being
remembered.
3
You have just begun casual work at the local supermarket. On your first day you are introduced
to 15 other employees, one after the other. According to the serial position effect, which names
are you most likely to remember and why?
Answers should demonstrate understanding of the serial position effect (e.g. latter names best,
earlier names second best and names around the middle worst) and should explain with
reference to relevant differences between STM and LTM (e.g. adequacy of rehearsal, STM
storage duration, transfer to LTM).
Learning Activity 6.12 (p. 259)
1
What is chunking?
Chunking is the grouping or ‘packing’ of separate bits of information into a larger single unit or
‘chunk’ of information.
2
How does chunking increase the capacity of STM?
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
Explanation should refer to organisation of 9 + discrete items into bigger, single chunks of
information (so that capacity is increased despite actually remaining at the 7 ± 2 limit).
3
Suppose you must memorise the following long list of words: banana, rabbit, paper, mango,
staple, apple, chicken, orange, pencil and elephant. You are allowed to recall the words in any
order you wish. How could you use chunking to better ensure storage and recall?
Organise or cluster items into chunks based on conceptual relationship, e.g. fruit (banana,
mango, apple, orange), stationery (staple, pencil, paper) and animals (rabbit, elephant, chicken).
This results in three chunks to store and recall rather than 10 separate discrete items.
4
Suggest an example of how chunking can improve recall from LTM.
The text provides two examples: waiters chunking orders (no notepad) and interpreters
chunking speaker’s words into translatable phrases or sentences
Learning Activity 6.14 (p. 264- 265)
1
Define working memory without reference to Baddeley and Hitch’s model of working memory.
Discuss student definitions to clarify conceptual understanding based on the multi-store model
and to link to Baddeley and Hitch’s model.
2
How does Baddeley and Hitch’s model describes (sic) the structure and function of working
memory? Include reference to the episodic buffer.
Baddeley and Hitch's model: working memory is the working part of memory in everyday life
that comprises three separate components or sub-systems called the phonological loop or
verbal working memory (specialised for verbal information), the visuo-spatial sketchpad or
visual working memory (specialised for visual and spatial information) and the episodic buffer
(specialised for aiding different components of memory to interact with LTM). Thiese all ‘work’
for the central executive (manages the activities in the three sub-systems and controls the
whole system). The components of working memory function relatively independently but also
interact.
3
Construct a table in which you summarise the key features of the three components of working
memory in Baddeley and Hitch’s model.
Component of working memory
Key features
phonological loop
•
encodes and stores auditory information
(or verbal working memory)
•
active whenever we read, listen, speak or repeat words
to ourself in order to remember them
•
temporarily stores a limited amount of verbal speechlike information, such as the sounds of words
(‘phonemes’), for a brief period of time
•
the verbal information is held in a sound-based
(‘phonological’) form
•
limited storage capacity
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
visuo-spatial sketchpad
•
storage duration is about 2 seconds worth of
information unless maintenance rehearsal is used to
retain
•
temporarily stores a limited amount of visual
information (e.g. anything seen or visualised) and spatial
information (e.g. visual location of objects in space)
•
mental workspace for storing and manipulating visual
and spatial information
•
limited storage capacity
•
limited storage duration unless maintenance rehearsal
is used to retain
•
sub-system of working memory that enables the
different components of working memory to interact
with LTM.
•
limited-capacity temporary storage system that holds
about four chunks of information
•
information can take any form but combines
information in an almost filmic way from working
memory and LTM, editing and reprocessing the
information in new ways
•
directly linked to LTM, but is separate and has its own
storage space and processes for storing information
•
the working component of working memory, i.e.
manages the activities of the other three and controls
the activities of the whole working memory system
•
controls attention, e.g. directs attention to current
activities and filters essential from non-essential
information
•
involved in every activity during NWC
•
integrates information from the phonological loop and
visuo-spatial sketchpad, as well as information retrieved
from LTM via the episodic buffer.
•
coordinates the flow of information between the
working memory system and LTM
(or visual working memory)
episodic buffer
central executive
4
Explain the relationship between the four components of Baddeley and Hitch’s model with
reference to an example.
Example:
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
A student sits in class during a ‘chalk and talk’ teacher presentation about “Romeo and Juliet”.
While they are listening to what their teacher is saying, the ‘speech’ information is temporarily
stored in the phonological loop component of working memory. When they copy notes to their
workbook, the visuo-spatial sketchpad component enables the student to temporarily store
information about the location of the teacher notes (i.e. on the whiteboard) and of their
workbook. The episodic buffer takes information from LTM and integrates it with the new
material. Soperhaps an image of a couple you know who have had to shoulder family disproval
of their relationship springs to mind as the teacher outlines the plot of the play to you. The
central executive coordinates these activities and enables the student to ignore a classmate
chatting behind them, while they are simultaneously accessing information stored in LTM to
assign meaningfulness to the notes in order to understand what the teacher is saying and what
is being written.
5
Suggest a reason to explain why the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and episodic
buffer are often described as ‘slave systems’ to the central executive.
The central executive manages all three of these sub-systems—they ‘work’ for it and are
directed by it, hence are ‘slaves’ to it.
6
7
Which of the four components of the working memory model is likely to directly transfer or
retrieve each of the following types of information to or from LTM?
a
words: phonological loop
b
images: visuo-spatial sketchpad
c
sounds: phonological loop
d
auditory information other than sounds: episodic buffer.
Give an example that describes the interaction of the four working memory components
different from that used in the text.
An example, involving making a banana cake for a parent (this has been used in LA 6.15 as well)
may involve activities such as:
8
•
phonological loop: identifying then sub-vocally rehearsing the ingredients, utensils and
equipment required to make the cake
•
visuo-spatial sketchpad: searching and locating ingredients etc. in cupboards, the fruit bowl
and the fridge, remembering which shelves are used to store different equipment and
visualising specific locations and a sequence for finding and relocating each item to a
suitable place for cake-making
•
episodic buffer: remembers that this is the parent’s favourite cake and always cheers them
up on a blue day, remembers the recipe used previously; combines information from the
phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad to connect them with LTM and perform
cake-making tasks
•
central executive: controls and coordinates the activities of the other three components;
controls attention required to undertake each specific task; organises an appropriate
sequence for locating and using ingredients; reorganises activities of other components to
locate the cake tin when it isn’t where it is supposed to be; facilitates estimation of the
time required to bake and cool the cake.
Some psychologists include both STM and working memory as separate but interacting subsystems in memory models, rather than using one term or the other or using both terms
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
interchangeably. They often refer to STM as a limited system involving basic functions such as
storage and retrieval, and working memory as the active component of memory. Explain why
the inclusion of STM and working memory as separate interacting systems may or may not be
appropriate for describing the structure and function of human memory.
There is no single correct answer. The question is intended to promote reflection and discussion
on conceptualisations/models of STM and working memory.
9
Various videos on YouTube show Baddeley explaining one or more features of his working
memory model. View two or more of these videos, ensuring each covers a different feature of
working memory.
a
Summarise the key points made by Baddeley in two videos.
b
Cite the video sources using the APA format (see chapter 1, pp. 81–83).
Answers will vary dependent on YouTube sources.
Learning Activity 6.15 (p. 265)
Create a diagram that identifies Baddeley’s four components of working memory and shows the
role(s) of each component and how the components interact. In your presentation, ensure that you
•
include appropriate visual representations of all four components and LTM
•
use arrows to connect the components and LTM
•
label the arrows using key words to identify relationships and processes
•
base the diagram on an example of a question or task in the central executive (but not the
question used in the text).
WORKING MEMORY’S STRUCTURE: Making a banana cake for a parent.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
Central executive
Verbal memory
e.g. 1 egg or two?;
where’s the tin?;
preheat the oven.
Applies the sequence of combining the
ingredients after everything is located,
how long it will need to cook and cool for,
locating the cake tin when it isn’t where it
is supposed to be, hides the cake.
Visual memory
e.g. flour, sugar;
third shelf in the
cupboard
Episodic
buffer
Visuo-spatial
sketchpad
Plays events like a film
Visual and spatial
resource
Phonological
loop
Speech-like thoughts in
our head
 mentally listing all the
ingredients required
for the cake, the
utensils and
equipment
 remembering that this is
your parent’s favourite
cake
 remembering the recipe
 working out how to
protect the cake from
hungry siblings so that it
lasts until your parent’s
arrival
 searching cupboards,
fruit bowl and the
fridge for the
ingredients
 remembering which
shelves are used to
store different
equipment
Long-term memory
Semantic LTM: recipes—cake, banana cake; ingredients—flour, sugar, butter, bananas,
egg; utensils—masher, wooden spoon, bowls and scraper, knowledge of where things are
kept.
Episodic LTM: knowledge that cake never lasts in the house, knowledge of successful
hiding spots in house, remembering the smile on your parent’s face last time they ate this
cake.
Procedural LTM: cooking skills related to baking, sifting, mixing, mashing, pouring.
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
Learning Activity 6.16 (p. 267)
1
According to Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework, what determines how well
information is stored in LTM?
Level/depth of process determines LTM storage durability—deeper levels use greater
meaning/elaborative encoding, thereby enhancing storage and retrieval
2
Explain the meaning of the levels of processing concept.
The level or ‘depth’ at which we process information during learning, determines how well it is
stored in LTM. The more meaning is attached to information that is to be remembered, the
deeper the processing and therefore the more effective its encoding and storage. Generally,
processing of meaning equals deep processing and a failure to process meaning equals shallow
processing.
3
4
What type of information is more likely to be processed at a shallow level? At a deep level?
•
Shallow level: acoustic information (e.g. ‘Blue rhymes with shoe’) or visual information (e.g.
‘This ice-cream container is blue.’).
•
Deep level: semantic information, e.g. using self-referencing such as ‘My brother used to
pretend he was an astronaut and wore a blue ice-cream container on his head as a helmet.’
Is elaborative rehearsal different from elaborative encoding? Explain your answer.
Yes. Elaborative rehearsal involves conscious manipulation of information to assist elaborative
encoding and thereby aid LTM storage and retrieval.
5
In what way can Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework provide support for
memory as a multi-store rather than a unitary system?
Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework does not provide support for memory as a
multi-store system. Their 1972 journal article proposing the levels of processing framework set
out to directly challenge the multi-store model of human memory.
Note that contrary to the psychology study design’s representation of their work, Craik and
Lockhart intentionally avoided calling their approach a model or theory. Instead, they described
it as ‘a conceptual framework … within which memory research might proceed’.
6
What is a common criticism of Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework?
There are no generally accepted means of measuring different levels of processing in valid and
reliable ways.
Learning Activity 6.17 (p. 267)
Using elaborative rehearsal for deep processing
Choose two of the concepts below and draw a diagram to show how these concepts could be
processed deeply using elaborative rehearsal so that they are more likely to be retained in LTM.
Figure 6.19 may be used as a model.
•
independent variable
•
sensory memory
•
dependent variable
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
•
iconic memory
•
extraneous variable
•
confounding variable
•
echoic memory
•
operational hypothesis
•
encoding
•
maintenance rehearsal
•
elaborative rehearsal
•
short-term memory
•
working memory
The example below shows a student’s response for ‘independent variable.’
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL FOR DEEP PROCESSING
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
Mix the two to
define…
Example:
Independent
Candidate –
not relying or
reporting to a
political party
Independent Variable
a treatment to which
participants are
exposed participants to
see how it will effect
variable(s) of interest.
Independent
means by itself –
so not relying on
anything?
It isn’t affected by
anything. It won’t
change, but it might
cause a change.
So it is outside the
study and then
introduced to the
study? Introduced to
see if it causes a
change in a thought,
feeling or behaviour
that can be measured.
What does
independent
variable
mean?
Merge both
ideas…
A researcher
introduces an
independent
variable to see if
and how its
presence will
change what is
being studied.
Example:Variation
of clouds – sky
gazing I see
different shapes
and colours of
clouds drifting &
changing.
Variable means a
changing factor –
so what factor are we
changing? The
researcher will need
something to
measure the change
against.
Changing
factors in
psychology are
shown by
studying
changing
behaviour.
Learning Activity 6.19 (p. 273)
1
What is long-term memory (LTM)?
Long-term memory (LTM): the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of
information for a long period of time.
2
Outline the organisation of LTM.
LTM is made up of two different stores:
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
•
procedural memory is responsible for information relating to actions and skills we have
learned (knowing how) and
•
declarative memory, which is responsible for our knowledge relating to facts and events,
information that can be explained, stated or declared (knowing that).
Declarative memory is, in turn, made up of two separate memories:
3
•
episodic memory, which relates to personal or autobiographical events, thoughts and
feeling and
•
semantic memory which consists of our knowledge base relating to facts about the world.
Why are procedural memories described as non-declarative memories?
Because they cannot be explained easily without being demonstrated through action.
4
List three key differences between episodic memories and semantic memories.
Differences can include:
-
-
-
5
How time is referenced:
o
episodic memories are tagged in terms of personal time (When I was 7, I rode my bike
without training wheels)
o
whereas semantic memories are linked to impersonal time (in 1066, William the
Conqueror defeated King Harold….)
How place is referenced:
o
episodic memories are tagged in terms of personal places (Remember when we
climbed the Eifel Tower in the rain?)
o
whereas semantic memories are linked to impersonal place (Paris is the capital of
France)
How knowledge is expressed
o
episodic memories are tagged in terms of personal information (I am allergic to bee
stings and carry an epi pen)
o
whereas semantic memories are linked to factual information (Allergens, such a stings
from bees, in severe cases may result in anaphylactic shock causing cessation of
breath and heart beat)
Distinguish between the implicit and explicit memory processes with reference to an example.
implicit memory: memory without awareness/occurs when information is recalled without
conscious or intentional retrieval but the memory can be expressed through performance (i.e.
actions of behavior) e.g. procedural memories involving automatic processing such as knowing
how to kick an Australian Rules football using a drop punt, knowing how to braid hair.
explicit memory: memory with awareness/occurs when information can be consciously or
intentionally retrieved and stated, e.g. declarative memories such as the memory of an incident
at the deb ball or that Thailand is a South East Asian country.
Note: implicit and explicit memory are processes, not memory types.
6
Which LTM system and/or sub-system involves:
•
implicit memory? – procedural memory
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
•
explicit memory? – declarative (semantic & episodic)
•
declarative information? - semantic & episodic
•
non-declarative information? – procedural memory
a
Why is information in LTM often described as ‘inactive’ information?
7
Explanation should refer to the information in LTM being ‘inactive’ (or information that
cannot be manipulated) because we are not consciously aware of LTM information unless
it is retrieved to STM or working memory.
b
Which other memory system could also be described as storing inactive information? Why?
The other memory system that can be described as storing inactive information is the
sensory memory, because we are not consciously aware of any information in the sensory
memory unless we direct attention to it so that it is transferred to STM or working memory
(where we become aware of it).
8
Complete the table below to summarise the key features of the different LTM types and
processes.
Long-term Memory
Features
Example
Procedural (implicit) memory
•
LTM of previously learned
skills and actions
Tying up shoe laces
•
information can often not
be stated
•
knowing ‘how’
•
LTM of specific facts and
events, most of which can
be stated
episodic – remembering
buying rainbow shoes laces for
your sister’s birthday.
•
two sub-types
•
facts and knowledge
about the world
semantic – knowing that some
shoe types have laces
•
knowing ‘that’
Declarative (explicit) memory
semantic memory
episodic memory
Learning Activity 6.20 (p. 273)
For each of the following activites, name the most likely LTM type and whether explicit memory is
involved.
a
describing your first day in Year 7
episodic (personal experience); explicit
b
registering your VTAC pin
semantic (reading and following a series of
instructions); explicit
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
c
slam-dunking a basketball
procedural (how to do it); implicit
d
recalling the names of Santa’s reindeer
semantic (factual information); explicit
e
solving a crossword puzzle
semantic (factual information); explicit
f
texting a phone message
procedural (how to do it, incl. knowing how to
locate address in Contacts); implicit
g
placing your lunch order in a fish and chip
shop
procedural (knowing the ordering procedure
through prior experience and performing the
action) - explicit; semantic (recalling and stating
order details) - implicit
h
taking a lunch order in a fish and chip shop
semantic (recalling how much is ordered, what is
sold, prices etc); implicit
i
describing the plot of a novel
semantic (factual information); implicit
j
playing hide and seek
semantic (rules/factual information) - implicit;
procedural, (how play can be demonstrated
through performance without necessarily being
able to state all the rules) - explicit
k
calculating a mean score
semantic (factual information); implicit
l
giving directions to the principal’s office
semantic (factual information); implicit
m
writing up a prac report
semantic (reporting conventions/factual
information); implicit
n
writing a computer program
semantic (using specific programming
language/factual information); implicit
o
answering a Trivial Pursuit question
semantic (factual information); implicit
p
playing Mario Bros. video game
procedural, i.e. involves how game is played how
to operate controls; explicit
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
q
feeling anxious at the sight of a mouse
because of a traumatic previous encounter
with a mouse.
episodic (personal experience); explicit (but a
conditioned response can be argued as implicit)
Learning Activity 6.22 (p. 276)
1
Why is organisation necessary in LTM?
Explanation should refer to the vast amount of information stored in LTM and the need for
some form of organisation to assist storage and retrieval.
2
According to semantic network theory:
a
What are two key features of how information is organised and stored in LTM?
Explanation should refer to systematic organisation (hierarchically structured) in the form
of overlapping networks (grids) of concepts that are interconnected and interrelated by
meaningful links.
b
How does retrieval of information from LTM occur?
Searching a particular ‘region’ of memory, most likely to store the required information,
and then tracing associations for links among memories (concepts) in that region rather
than randomly searching the vast information stores in LTM.
c
Is spreading activation possible in the STM (or working memory)? Explain your answer.
No. Spreading activation involves semantically organised information in storage. In STM or
working memory, information is usually stored in terms of the physical qualities of the
experience.
Note that in STM required information is actually present (is in conscious awareness) and is
available for selection (retrieval) and use.
3
Use your answers to question 2 to write a definition of semantic network theory.
Definitions should incorporate the spreading activation concept. Discuss student definitions to
clarify conceptual understanding.
4
Draw a small segment of a possible semantic network for the concept of flower or book.
Discuss student examples to clarify conceptual understanding.
5
List three key differences between LTM and STM.
Differences may refer to features such as:
•
function
•
storage duration
•
storage capacity
•
conscious awareness
•
retrieval/access and recovery
•
role of rehearsal
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Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
•
organisation
•
forgetting
Learning Activity 6.23 (p. 276)
1
Construct a table that summarises the main distinguishing features of the sensory memory,
short-term working memory and LTM systems.
Name of
memory
system
Main
function(s)
Type of
information
Storage
duration
sensory
memory
stores all
original (raw)
new
sensory form
information
that may
enter
memory
from the
external
environment
very brief— vast
duration
may differ
for each
sensory
register
no
none
iconic
memory
visual
visual sensory
sensory
data detected
memory
by eyes
that stores,
new
incoming
visual
information
0.2–0.4
seconds
no
none (i.e.
as above
they are raw
data)
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Storage Organisation Level of
capacity of stored
processing
information
vast
Relationship Other
to other
distinctive
systems
features
entry point no encoding
for all new
a different
information
sensory
to memory
register for
transfers to each sense,
STM or
each with
working
own
memory
features,
(and
e.g. storage
sometimes duration
directly to
may act as a
LTM
filtering
according to
system for
Atkinson–
incoming
Shiffrin
sensory
model)
information
attention is
required for
transfer and
encoding
stored
information
is available
just long
enough to
attend to
and select
what has
been seen
for further
processing
23
Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
echoic
memory
auditory
auditory sensory 3–4
sensory
data detected
seconds
memory
by the ears
that stores,
new
incoming
auditory
information
STM or
working
memory
limited,
encoded
temporary
store of
information
for use in
everyday
activities
vast
up to about 7 ± 2
18 seconds items
no
none (i.e.
as above
they are raw
data)
chunking can maintenance information
organise
rehearsal for is
shallow
transferred
processing from
and
sensory
elaborative memory or
rehearsal for retrieved
deep
from LTM
processing for use in
everyday
activities
available just
long enough
to attend to
and select
what has
been seen
for further
processing
active part
of memory
where
information
is ‘worked’
upon for
everyday
function
conscious
awareness
of all
information
rehearsal
extends
duration;
chunking
extends
capacity
phonological verbal
sound-based
loop
working
(phonological)
memory for
temporary
store of
verbal,
speech-like
information,
e.g. sounds
of words
(phonemes)
about 2
seconds
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limited
N/A
N/A
controlled
by central
executive
LTM
maintenance
rehearsal is
capacity is in vital for
dependent retention
of visuospatial
sketchpad
24
Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
visuo-spatial visual
visual and
scratchpad working
spatial
memory for information
temporary
store of
visual and
spatial
information
brief
central
executive
limited
controls
attention
integrates
information
manipulates
information in
other
components
limited
N/A
N/A
capacity is in
dependent
of
phonological
loop
limited
N/A
N/A
from other
components
and from
LTM
coordinates
flow of
information
between
working
memory and
LTM
episodic
buffer
enables
working
memory and
components
to connect
to and
interact with
LTM
information in
any form, e.g.
can combine
visual
information and
sounds
controlled
by central
executive
brief—a
about 4
temporary chunks
working or
editing
space
mental
workbench
to
manipulate
information
for cognitive
activities
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N/A
N/A
coordinates
activities of
working
memory and
its
components
as well as
flow of
information
from them
and LTM
most
important
and most
complex
component
‘working’
component
of working
memory
Involved in
everything
we think,
feel and do
in NWC
controlled
by central
executive
Added by
Baddeley
(2000) to
explain
directly
relationship
linked to
between
LTM but has
LTM and
own storage
working
space and
memory
processes
25
Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
LTM
relatively
depends on type
permanent
memory
system for
storing vast
amounts of
information
for a long
period of
time
possibly
unlimited highly
deep level
indefinitely,
organised by
relatively
meaning and
permanent
association
to assist
storage and
retrieval,
e.g.
semantic
(meaningful)
networks
receives
new
incoming
information
from STM or
working
memory if
properly
encoded
(e.g. by elab.
rehearsal)
different
LTM types
for different
information
explicit and
implicit
LTMs
information
retrieved
from LTM to
STM or
working
memory for
conscious
awareness
and use
procedural
memory
LTM of
previously
learned
actions and
skills
knowing ‘how’
relatively
vast
permanent
as above
as above
as above
implicit
memory
process, i.e.
retrieved
without
conscious
awareness
and
expressed
through
performance
declarative
memory
LTM for
‘knowing that’
specific facts
and events
that can be
explicitly
stated
relatively
vast
permanent
as above
as above
as above
Two subtypes episodic and
semantic
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explicit
memory
process i.e.
retrieved
with
conscious
awareness
and can be
stated
26
Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
semantic
memory
episodic
memory
2
LTM for
facts and
knowledge
about the
world
factual
relatively
vast
information not permanent
dependent on
links to time or
place
as above
LTM for
personally
experienced
events
like
relatively
vast
autobiographical permanent
information and
usually including
time, place and
state details
as above
as above
as above
declarative
LTM subtype
explicit
memory
as above
as above
declarative
LTM subtype
explicit
memory
Create a flow chart to show the flow of a specific example of incoming sensory information as it
moves through a model of memory that integrates the Atkinson–Shiffrin model, the Baddeley
(2000) model and the Craik and Lockhart framework. The flow chart should include a
representation of maintenance and elaborative rehearsal and the information must be shown
as being both stored and then retrieved from LTM for use.
The focus should be on accurately, clearly and succinctly summarising and representing key
memory concepts and processes.
Learning Activity 6.24 (p. 277)
Answers on page 755.
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