Information Processing Approach
Define cognition and differentiate
among the stage, levels-of-processing,
parallel distributed processing, and
connectionist models of information
processing...
Developed by W. Huitt (1999)
The Cognitive System
Cognition can be defined as
"the act or process of knowing in the
broadest sense; specifically, an
intellectual process by which
knowledge is gained from perception
or ideas" (Webster's Dictionary).
Information Processing Approach
While cognitive psychology is the dominant
school of thought today, the information
processing approach is the dominant view
within this area.
The information processing approach focuses
on the study of the structure and function of
mental processing within specific contexts,
environments, or ecologies.
Information Processing Approach
There are four major theories of how we
humans process information:
• Stage approach
• Levels-of-processing theory
• Parallel distributed processing theory
• Connectionistic models
The Stage Theory
The focus of this model is on how information
is stored in memory.
The model is based on the work of Atkinson and
Shriffin (1968) and proposes that information is
processed and stored in three stages:
• Sensory memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory
Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes. In K Spence & J Spence (Eds.). The psychology of learning and
motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
The Levels-of-Processing Theory
The Levels-of-Processing theory is based on the
work of Craik and Lockhart (1972).
The major proposition is all stimuli that
activate a sensory receptor cell are
permanently stored in memory.
According to these researchers, the issue is
not storage, but retrieval.
Craik, F., & Lockhart, R. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for
memory research. Journal of Verbal Thinking and Verbal Behavior, 11,
671-684. .
The Levels-of-Processing Theory
Rather than hypothesize that information is
processed in stages, Craik and Lockhart
believe that retrieval of information is based on
the amount of elaboration used as information
is processed.
This is done on a continuum from perception,
through attention, to labeling, and finally
meaning.
Parallel Distributed Processing Theory
The parallel-distributed processing model
states that information is processed
simultaneously by several different parts of the
memory system, rather than sequentially as
hypothesized by Atkinson-Shiffrin.
The stage-theory model discussed in this course
differs slightly from that first proposed by
Atkinson and Shriffin in order to incorporate
this principle.
Connectionistic Theory
The connectionistic model proposed by
Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) extends the
parallel-distributed processing model.
This model emphasizes the fact that
information is stored in multiple locations
throughout the brain in the form of networks
of connections.
Rumelhart, D., & McClelland, J. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed
processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Connectionistic Theory
It is one of the dominant forms of current
research in cognitive psychology and is
consistent with the most recent brain research.
It is also consistent with the levels-ofprocessing approach in that the more
connections to a single idea or concept (i.e., the
more extensively elaboration is used), the more
likely it is to be remembered.
The Information Processing Approach
While there is much disagreement among
the various schools of thought related to
how human beings process information,
there are a few general principles about
which almost all researchers agree:
The Information Processing Approach
Limited
capacity
assumption
The amount of information
that can be actively processed
by the system at a given point
in time is constrained in some
very important ways.
The Information Processing Approach
Limited
capacity
assumption
Bottlenecks, or restrictions
in the flow and processing
of information, occur at
very specific points.
The Information Processing Approach
Control
mechanism
Required to oversee the
encoding, transformation,
processing, storage, retrieval
and utilization of
information.
The Information Processing Approach
Control
mechanism
Not all of the processing
capacity of the system is
available; an executive
function that oversees this
process will use up some of this
capability.
The Information Processing Approach
Control
mechanism
When one is learning a new
task or is confronted with a
new environment, the
executive function requires
more processing power than
when one is doing a routine
task or is in a familiar
environment.
The Information Processing Approach
Two-way
flow of
information
As we try to make sense of the
world around us, we
constantly use information
that we
• gather through the senses
(often referred to as
bottom-up processing)
The Information Processing Approach
Two-way
flow of
information
As we try to make sense of the
world around us, we
constantly use information
that we
• information we have
stored in memory (often
called top-down processing)
The Information Processing Approach
Two-way
flow of
information
This is a dynamic process
that we use to construct
meaning about our
environment and our
relations to it.
The Information Processing Approach
Two-way
flow of
information
This principle is somewhat
analogous to the difference
between
• inductive reasoning
• deductive reasoning
OR
The Information Processing Approach
Two-way
flow of
information
This principle is somewhat
analogous to the difference
between
• information we derive
from the senses
• information generated
by our imaginations
The Information Processing Approach
Genetic
preparation
A human infant is more
likely to look at a human
face than any other
stimulus.
Language development is
similar in all human
infants.
The Information Processing Approach
Genetic
preparation
The human organism has
been genetically prepared to
process and organize
information in specific ways.
The Stage Theory
We will focus on the stage theory in this course
as work has been done to identify how to apply
it to classroom and academic learning.