Language and Definition
• A definition states the meaning of a word.
• The word being defined is the definiendum and the
definition is the definiens.
• Numerous types of definitions exist, and defining
a word can mean a variety of things.
Definitions
• Are definitions a help or a hindrance in understanding our world?
• One school of thought maintains that by defining things we separate
then into discrete parts when in fact the world is continuous, a
seamless cloth.
• The idea is that when we define an object we artificially snip off pieces
from the endlessness of reality in order to make it manageable, but
something of the object’s essence becomes lost when we try to harness
it by forcing it into the limits of a definition.
• H.G. Wells once remarked, “The forceps of our minds are clumsy
forceps and crush the truth a little in taking hold of it.”
Definitions II
• However, we do know that to think without language is
extremely difficult, but with a set of defined words we can
conceive and imagine things almost without limits.
• Overall, definitions enrich our understanding.
Stipulative Definitions
• Stipulative definitions - to introduce unusual or unfamiliar
words, to coin new words, or to introduce a new meaning
to a familiar word.
• Stipulative definitions come in two varieties, arbitrary and
restrictive.
• In the arbitrary type people stipulate that, for their
purposes, an invented word will henceforth carry a
particular meaning.
– For example, Sigmund Freud invented three terms to stand for the
fundamental energy systems of the psyche: The “id” represents
primal upsurging desires; the “ego” means control by rationality
and realism; and the “superego” means the internalized social
rules, manifested chiefly in the form of conscience.
Stipulative Definitions II
• In the category of arbitrary stipulative definitions are also
acronyms, or words formed from the initial letters of a phrase.
• We speak, for example, of “NASA,” National Aeronautics and
Space Administration or “NASCAR,” National Association of
Stock Car Auto Racing.
• Many words begin as acronyms, and if they become assimilated
into the culture, the original words that made them up are lost.
Stipulative Definitions III
• The second type of stipulative definition is a restricting one
whereby a person proposes to use an ordinary word in a
special, limited, or precise sense.
• For example, a legislator may say, “My bill proposes aid
for the poor, and by ‘poor’ I mean those with family
incomes below $6,000 per year.”
Stipulative Definitions IV
• Since all stipulative definitions are forewarnings and statements of
intent, we can never accuse them of being false; they are, after all,
simply proposals. But we can criticize them for being illegitimate.
That is, if someone offers a definition that we cannot accept
psychologically, a definition that tries to persuade us to accept a
peculiar point of view, then it can be criticized as unacceptable.
– For example, “Fork: an instrument used chiefly for putting dead
animals into the mouth.” - Ambrose Bierce
Reportive Definitions
• Reportive definitions – in this kind of definition a
description is offered of the conventional meaning of a
word, and if the description does not match the actual way
that the word is used, then the definition is incorrect.
• Depending on the accuracy of the survey of the usage, the
definition is either true or false.
• A reportive definition gives an explanation of the general
meaning a word carries for a group of language users.
Reportive Definitions II
• Sometimes this type of definition is called “lexical” because it is the
lexicographer’s or dictionary - maker’s definition .
• Although lexicographers usually report how a word is used, sometimes
they take on the role of an authority and tell us how a word should be
used. This legislative function of dictionaries is more prevalent in
countries such as France or Germany where there is greater sensitivity
to the corruption of language. In the United States we are more
interested in the dynamic growth of English than in its purity. That is
why we accept idiomatic expressions and slang so readily; when street
language becomes prevalent enough, it is incorporated into the
dictionary as common usage.
Reportive Definitions III
• Although reportive definitions are usually descriptions of how
words are currently used, sometimes they will include former
usages as explanations of a word’s historical meaning. These past
or archaic senses can provide background interest and shed light
on a word’s present meaning, however, one should not assume that
the original meaning of a word is its real meaning.
– For example, “cunning” once meant clever, and a “flasher” was a
brilliant person.
• Reportive definitions, then, are accounts of the established usage
of words, and all dictionary definitions are of this type. Depending
on how accurately they reflect actual usage, they can be said to
have correct or incorrect definitions.
Synonyms
• Synonyms constitute a third type of definition, and here
another word is offered that has approximately the same
meaning as the first.
• For example, to define honesty we could list truthfulness,
frankness or candor; for humorous we could list funny,
comical, or amusing. Of course, the synonym must be a
word that is understood, otherwise the meaning of the
original word will not be clarified. Thus the effectiveness
of a synonym definition depends on the reader’s stock in
trade; the larger his or her vocabulary, the more effective
the synonym is likely to be in explaining the meaning of a
word.
Synonyms II
• In such definitions the word that is presented as
synonymous should be as close as possible in meaning to
the word that we are trying to define. No two words will
have identical meanings, of course, otherwise they would
be the same word and one would drop out of the language
as superfluous.
Synonyms III
• Thesauruses specialize in listing synonyms, and there are
dictionaries of antonyms, words with opposite meanings, as
well. Any words listed as synonymous would have roughly
the same meaning, and they will range from close
approximations to words with fairly remote connections.
• For example, if we are looking for synonyms for “dog” we
might find listed “pooch” and “mutt”. Likewise, synonym
definitions for “female”, depending on the context might
include “woman”, “lady”, “dame” , “chick”, and so forth.
From the array of choices we must select the synonym that
best expresses what we wish to convey, because the
intension, extension, and connotation are all different.
Synonym IV
• Synonym definitions are also found very often in bilingual dictionaries
when a word is translated from a foreign language to English and vice
versa. If we consult a German-English dictionary for the meaning of
die Uhr it will be translated as “clock.” Even here, however, a certain
caution is necessary to ensure we have equivalencies. A clock in
Germany can be what we would call a watch. If we take synonyms at
face value, we might misconstrue the meaning because of cultural
differences.
• Take a sentence or two in English and run it through a translator, such
as http://babelfish.altavista.com in German and Spanish and then back
to English. How much has been lost in translation?
Example Definitions
• Example definitions explain the meaning of a word by
mentioning some instances of it. In terms of our
discussion of extension, they explain a meaning by
pointing out some of the members of the class. Once we
know the range of things referred to by a term (assuming it
is referential), then we have a clearer understanding of its
meaning. For instance, an example definition of “bird”
might include Robin, Oriole, Blue jay, and so forth.
Example Definitions II
• Also covered by example definition are descriptions of the
sort of experience that is involved. For example, we might
explain the meaning of “depressed” as the feeling you get
when you’re alone after breaking up with someone you’ve
been involved with for a long time. It’s Saturday night, the
telephone doesn’t ring, no one knocks on the door, there’s
a party next door, and a blues song is playing on the radio.
That is being depressed.
• We might define “trusting” as disclosing personal secrets,
allowing oneself to be vulnerable.
Ostensive definition
• Sometimes a description of the experience or a catalog of
examples is not enough of an explanation, and we can only
show the object, event, or characteristics to which a word
applies. We have an ostensive definition.
• For instance, the best way to explain “red” is to hold up
different red objects. To explain “spicy” we might have
them taste a spicy food. Some things are first hand
experiences, and no description of characteristics will
convey the meaning adequately. A person blind from birth
will never understand the word “red” except in the
descriptive sense.
Applications
• A stipulative definition should be used if we want to invent a word
for something new or to warn someone that we are severely
limiting the application of a word. We might use an arbitrary
stipulative definition, for example, if we want to tell about some
new psychological theory we’ve devised. We might say “I am
going to call ‘the Pinnochio syndrome’ the feeling children have
that whatever they do wrong will show on their faces.” Or we
might say “By ‘medicine’ I mean the cure of disease and the
maintenance of health as practiced in Western Science; I am not
including faith healing or alternative medicine such as herbal
treatment, meditation, massage, or acupuncture.”
Applications II
• A reportive definition that describes conventional usage is
the most common definition used. In presenting some
argument about the United States we might want to say,
“We are a republic, that is, we have a government in which
citizens exercise power through voting and electing
representatives responsible to them.”
Applications III
• We should use a synonym definition if we want to explain
the meaning of a word in a way that is quick, direct, and
easily grasped. As discussed, we must be reasonably sure
that the word we offer as equivalent is something the
reader or hearer is likely to know, otherwise it will leave
her doubly mystified.
• Finally, it is sometimes most effective in defining a word
to list some examples of the things the word includes.
Avoiding Definition Mistakes
• In forming sound definitions, whether stipulative,
reportive, synonym, or example, certain standards must be
met. These standards make the definition reliable, keep it
honest.
• Some standards have already been discussed: that
stipulative definitions must be psychologically acceptable
and that reportive definitions must reflect conventional
usage. However, there are additional criteria for
acceptable definitions, and they are usually listed as pitfalls
to avoid.
Circularity
• Definitions should not be circular. A circular definition
usually repeats the defined word in the definition. To
define “cookbook” as “a book used to cook” is not very
informative. A definitions is also circular when it defines
two words in terms of each other. For example, “A cause
is that which produces an effect” and “An effect is that
which results from a cause.” These definitions are just
going around in circles.
Definitions that are too broad or too
narrow.
• Another trap to avoid is having definitions that are too
broad or too narrow. If our definition is unduly broad it
will cover too much, failing to rule out things that are
extraneous. If it is too narrow it will cover too little,
excluding things that should be included within the term.
• For example, President Clinton’s definition may have been
too narrow when he stated, referring to Monica Lewinsky,
“I did not have sexual relations with that woman as I
interpret the term”. On the other hand, to define “music”
simply as sound would qualify the noise of jackhammers,
sirens, and traffic as different kinds of music.
Metaphorical definitions
• Metaphorical definitions should be avoided. In poetic
discourse metaphors and similes, images and symbols, are
the life blood of the art, but in formulating definitions,
where clarity and directness are critical, such language
should be avoided. It is unilluminating to define a “saint”
as “a dead sinner, revised and edited,” or “happiness” as “a
warm puppy.” To those familiar with these terms, the
coloring adds interest, but it will not help anyone who is
ignorant of the principle meaning. Such definitions might
even mislead people, especially those learning English as a
second language.
Loaded Definitions
• Sometimes definitions are used for persuasive purposes
and are charged with positive or negative emotions; in such
cases they are considered loaded. A loaded definition has
an “attitude”; it expresses a value judgment and is not just
a neutral description of conventional meaning. Take the
following examples of loaded definitions: “an intellectual
is someone who knows everything except how to make
money”; and “immigrant” is “an unenlightened person
who thinks one country is better than another.” These
definitions are funny, but should be avoided when we are
seriously discussing issues.
Importance of Definitions
• Providing good definitions may seem a trivial matter, but
we need to be conscientious about them because they may
be the basis of important decisions.
• For instance, it is crucial to determine the meaning of
“person” in the abortion controversy. If someone is
arrested for sale or possession of drugs the definitions of
“narcotic” and “controlled substance” are crucial.