A2
Sport Psychology
January 2010
D1 - Sita needs to improve her running times to
ensure selection for a major competition.
(a) (i) Describe one psychological technique used
to improve sporting performance. (3)
e.g. Imagery
• Sita could use imagery to visualise winning the race/eq;
• Sita could imagine the feeling of winning and receiving a gold
medal/eq;
• Sita could imagine the muscular power/breathing during a good
run/eq;
• Imagery requires visualising and feeling the desired goal/eq;
• Imagery allows the athlete to put themselves ‘mentally’ into the
situation of winning which acts as a motivation/eq;
• Mental rehearsal of the imagery can increase familiarity and
confidence and reduce anxiety/eq;
• Cognitive general imagery involves the imagining of overall
success/eq;
• Cognitive specific imagery concerns picturing success at a specific
skill/eq;
e.g. Goal setting
– Target/goal setting would involve Sita setting specific targets to achieve in her
running/eq;
– Sita might set a goal of beating her current lap time as it would act as a motivation to
succeed/eq;
– Sita would need to set herself specific laptimes/off the blocks timing as part of this
technique/eq;
– The goal needs to be SMART because unsmart targets could be demotivating for Sita/eq;
– Goals must be Specific, Measurable, Achievable /attainable/appropriate, realistic and
time measured/eq (list mark);
– Goals can be performance based on a specific skill or outcome based on overall
winning/eq;
– Specific targets should not be vague so that a specific goal can be focused upon eg
service hand/eq;
– Measurable targets allow a benchmark to be set so that improvement can be monitored
to show improvement/eq;
– Appropriate targets are relevant to the sportsperson/eq;
– Realistic targets are not too difficult or easy so demotivation through underperformance
or unachievable aims/eq;
– Time based targets encourage and sustain motivation for appropriate time [period/eq;
January 2010
(ii) Evaluate the psychological technique used to
improve performance that you described in
(a)(i). (4)
e.g. Imagery
• Feltz and Landers (1983) found that overall studies
found imagery to be better than no mental imagery at
all/eq;
• Imagery is not a substitute for physical practice/eq;
• Isaac (1992) found that high imagery trampolinists
performed better the low and no imagery groups/eq;
• Research into imagery has been experimental, so the
technique lacks field trials to achieve validity/eq;
• Imagery is quite specific and may lead to greater
physical practice of the skill, which would account for
the improvement rather than the imagery itself/eq;
e.g. Goal setting
– Mellalieu (2005) found that SMART targets set for
rugby players showed considerable sporting
improvement in those skills compared to the skills
that were not targeted/eq;
– Because self generated targets are most effective, this
itself may be intrinsically motivational/eq;
– Targets that are unrealistic may not be achieved and
act as a demotivator/eq;
– Goal setting, unlike imagery, is more likely to involve
physical practice which will improve performance/eq;
January 2010
(b) Sita investigates other psychological
techniques to try and improve her performance
and to see how they compare to the one she is
currently using.
Compare two psychological techniques used to
improve sporting performance. Comparisons
involve looking at similarities and differences.
(3)
e.g. Imagery and goal setting
(comparison)
• Goal setting involves practical/physical activity whereas imagery involves
mental/cognitive activity/eq;
• Both techniques allow the athlete to motivate themselves
• intrinsically through visualising the goal or meeting set targets/eq;
• The techniques have rarely been experimentally tested with high
performing sportspeople, so may only be useful where improvement can
be considerable rather than discrete/eq;
• Both have been tested using field studies so the findings are likely to be
valid as they are about actual sporting performance (1st mark). E.g. Boyd
and Munroe found differences in imagery use between track and field
athletes and climbers/e.q. (second mark);
• There are other factors that could affect performance, such as audience,
fitness etc, it would be difficult to accurately measure the success of
either technique on sporting performance/eq;
• Goal setting requires physical effort compared to the relative lack of effort
required in imagery/eq;
January 2010
D2 - (a) Describe the questionnaire as a research
method used in sport psychology. (3)
D2 - (a) Describe the questionnaire as a research method used
in sport psychology. (3)
• Questionnaires can be used to gather data on the athletes perception of
performance/effectiveness of techniques to improve performance/eq;
• Unlike experiments, they can be used as an investigative tool without
interfering with sporting performance/eq;
• Questionnaires can be repeated several times to track sporting
progress/eq;
• Questionnaire can be used in meta analysis when they are standardised so
repeatable/eq;
• E.g. Craft et al looked at many studies using the CSAI-2 and used the
results of all the studies because they used the same tool/eq;
• Questionnaires can be a useful probe/precursor to experimental
methods/eq;
• Questionnaires gather self report data using open questions and/or closed
questions/eq;
• Qualitative (open questions) and/or quantitative data (closed questions)
can be gathered/eq;
January 2010
(b) Describe the strengths and weaknesses of
using questionnaires as a research method in
sport psychology. (5)
(b) Describe the strengths and weaknesses of using
questionnaires as a research method in sport psychology. (5)
• Strengths
• Questionnaires can have test-retest reliability and athletes/sportspeople
scores can be checked over time/participants/eq;
• Pilot studies are typically conducted to ensure the reliability of specific
questions/eq;
• Open questions can gather rich qualitative information/eq;
• There are many ways of asking the same question, which can
• check for construct validity/eq;
• Asking athletes as opposed to inferring from experiments can
• be seen as more valid/eq;
• Can be regarded as gaining consent and right to withdraw as
• declining completion of the questionnaire acts as this/eq;
• Postal questionnaires can often neglect to fully debrief
• participants/eq;
(b) Describe the strengths and weaknesses of using
questionnaires as a research method in sport psychology. (5)
• Weaknesses
– Answers may reflect social desirability of athletes rather
than reality because participants respond in a way they
think they ought to answer/eq;
– Respondents/sportspeople may lie if they feel they are
being judged on their answer/eq;
– If a respondent/sportsperson guesses the aim of the study
they may answer in a way that reflects the demands of the
questionnaire rather than honesty/eq;
– The response rate for questionnaire is low, so the results
may be biased towards volunteers/eq;
– They might involve slight deception as disclosure of the
purpose may lead to demand characteristics/eq;
January 2010
D3 - Describe and evaluate the inverted U
hypothesis as an explanation used in sport
psychology. (12)
D3 - Describe and evaluate the inverted U hypothesis
as an explanation used in sport psychology. (12)
• Description points (AO1)
• The inverted U hypothesis is a biological theory that explains sporting
performance relating to arousal and anxiety/eq;
• Arousal is important in sport as it can improve performance/eq;
• An optimum point is reached where peak performance is achieved/eq;
• Too much arousal results in a loss of physical performance/eq;
• According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, moderate arousal results in optimum
performance, but it really depends upon the type of sporting activity and
experience level of the individual/eq;
• Fine motor control sports are better performed in a low state of
arousal/eq;
• Complex sports are best performed in a state of low arousal/eq;
• High strength/power sports are best performed in high state of
arousal/eq;
• Simple tasks are better performed in high arousal state/eq;
D3 - Describe and evaluate the inverted U hypothesis
as an explanation used in sport psychology. (12)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Evaluation points (AO2)
Experienced sportspeople can perform well with high arousal as there is less need to focus on a well practised
task/eq;
Novices practise tasks using low arousal as concentration is needed in learning a new skill/eq;
The catastrophe model points out that increases in anxiety may not result in a gradual drop in performance, as
even a modest increase in anxiety can result in a lull in sporting performance following the optimal arousal
level/eq;
The inverted U hypothesis can be usefully applied to help psyche up or relax a sportsperson to achieve the optimal
level of arousal needed for the type of sport and individual/eq;
Experimental research to test the inverted U hypothesis has used techniques to relax or psych out an individual
(threat or incentive) which may cause anxiety/ego rather than arousal/eq;
More recent multidimensional theories have tried to bridge the gap between physical arousal and cognitive
factors associated with sporting performance/eq;
If skilled sportspeople need higher levels of arousal to perform, this might explain why records are broken more
frequently at large important events where pressure is very high/eq;
Lowe’s (1974) Little League study found that baseball performance was better in moderate conditions rather than
critical or non-critical conditions during a game, supporting optimal performance/eq;
A field study by Klavora (1978) followed a basketball team during a competition and found that coaches
assessments of performance related to standing in the tournament (high or low standing led to worse
performances)/eq;
Can explain how an audience can have an effect on performance/eq;
June 2010
D1 - (a) Define the following terms:
• Intrinsic motivation
• Extrinsic motivation. (3)
D1 - (a) Define the following terms:
• Intrinsic motivation
• Extrinsic motivation. (3)
Intrinsic motivation
• An inner drive for behaviour/eq;
• Motivation because of self satisfaction/drive to succeed/eq;
• A sportsperson may derive pleasure from performance/eq;
Extrinsic motivation
• Incentive for behaviour that is outside an individual/eq;
• Financial incentive can be an external motivation resulting
in a change in behaviour/eq;
• A sportsperson is motivated by a crowd’s cheer/eq;
June 2010
(b) Ian is a trampolinist who came third in a
recent competition and is feeling low. His coach
needs to improve his motivation before the next
competition.
Explain how Ian’s coach would use achievement
motivation theory to improve Ian’s motivation.
(3)
Explain how Ian’s coach would use achievement
motivation theory to improve Ian’s motivation. (3)
• Ian’s coach would exploit his need for praise and offer him
encouragement/eq;
• Self satisfaction can be increased by offering small
achievements/goals that can be met during practice/eq;
• Ian’s coach could assess his need for achievement and challenge
him if his need was high/eq;
• If Ian has high nAch he will not be phased by setbacks so his coach
can set high risk challenges/eq;
• With a high Nac, the coach could set him the challenge of winning
the next event to motivate him/eq;
• To satisfy a high NPow Ian’s coach could set him the challenge of
being captain if he wins/eq;
• Train with a group of trampolinists to satisfy a high Naffill/eq;
June 2010
(c) - Evaluate achievement motivation theory. (4)
(c) - Evaluate achievement motivation
theory. (4)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The need for achievement is commonly recorded using self reports which may be
unreliable/eq;
The research is based on a personality trait rather than a feature of sporting
competition/interaction between personality and situational factors/eq;
Butt and Cox (1992) found higher levels of achievement motivation (N-Ach) in top
class US tennis players in the Davis Cup compared to lower level competitors/eq;
The theory can be used to develop the need for achievement in sportspeople by
coaches/eq;
Research suggests that high achievers take on more difficult tasks than low
achievers, which is consistent with achievement motivation theory/eq;
Without sporting ability, achievement motivation theory is limited in explaining
sporting success/eq;
The results of projective tests used to judge achievement motivation, are
subjectively interpreted/eq;
June 2010
D2 – (a) Outline how qualitative data can be
gathered using a questionnaire. (2)
D2 – (a) Outline how qualitative data can
be gathered using a questionnaire. (2)
One mark per point/elaboration.
Answer does not have to relate to sport
• Open ended questions are used/eq;
• This gives space to answer freely about attitudes and beliefs/the
questions do not force an answer/eq;
• Sports professionals can be asked to describe their
attitude/feelings/performance in their sport/eq;
• The information gathered is detailed data about opinions, beliefs
that can be used to assess a sport or individual/eq;
• Themes from the responses are recorded/eq;
• Often several coders are used to ensure themes are valid/eq;
June 2010
D2
(b) Explain why sports psychologists might
choose to use qualitative data in their research.
(3)
D2
(b) Explain why sports psychologists might choose to use
qualitative data in their research. (3)
Must refer to sport in one way or max 2 marks overall.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Qualitative data is in depth and detailed/eq;
Many raters/coders are used to ensure reliability of themes/findings/eq;
It allows the sportsperson to self report their detailed opinions/eq;
In sports psychology it allows an insight into an individuals perception of
their performance/eq;
It has been useful when assessing an individuals motivation/eq;
Helps psychologists understand sporting
performance/competence/attitudes/eq;
Allows researchers to develop new themes that would not be discovered
with quantitative analysis/eq;
Allows coaches to understand the needs and beliefs of sports people so
coaching skills can be developed/eq;
June 2010
D2
(c) Describe how the questionnaire as a research
method was used in the Boyd and Monroe
(2003) study. (3)
D2
(c) Describe how the questionnaire as a research method was
used in the Boyd and Monroe (2003) study. (3)
One mark per point/elaboration.
Take care with detail – climbers tested individually and athletes in groups (not
other way round).
• Two questionnaires were given to expert and amateur climbers and field
and track sportspeople/eq;
• Both the SIQ (Sport imagery questionnaire) and CIQ (Climbing imagery
questionnaire) were used to assess the function and frequency of imagery
use/eq;
• The questionnaires measured the cognitive (CS & CG) and motivation
functions (MG-M, MG-A & MS) of imagery/eq;
• The questionnaires were used to compare field and track with climbers in
term of the used and function of imagery/eq;
• The questionnaire was also used to compare expert and amateur climbers
in terms of the use and function of imagery/eq;
• Uses 7-point likert scale (rarely-often)/eq;
June 2010
D3 - Describe and evaluate one of the following
research studies:
• Cottrell et al (1968)
• Koivula (1995)
• Craft et al (2003).
(12)
Each one is now divided into a describe slide and an
evaluate slide, both worth 6 marks each (12 in
total).
Cottrell et al (1968) - Describe
(6)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Aimed to test the effect of audience on performance/eq;
How audience affects performance on competitional and non- competitional tasks/eq;
132 male undergraduates were given lists of paired associate words to learn/eq;
The non-competitional list had strong associations between the paired associated words but not
between the word pairs themselves/eq;
The competitional list had weak associations between the paired associate words but strong
associations between the word pairs themselves, making them more difficult to learn and a higher
chance of error/eq;
Participants either had to produce two errorless list recalls or the whole set of 30 lists/eq;
Audience improved performance on non-competitional tasks in terms of speed of learning/eq;
Error rate was highest with an audience on competitiopnal task/eq;
Slow learners produced a higher mean error rate on competitional lists than fast learners with an
audience, suggesting that audience hinders performance on less proficient individuals/tasks/eq;
In the second part of the study, mere-presence and audience was tested by using a blindfolded
participant/eq;
Mere-presence had little effect on performance but with practice it showed that audience
improved performance/eq;
Cottrell et al (1968) - Evaluate
(6)
•
•
•
•
The type of performance is cognitive and unlikely to demonstrate real audience effects within sport/eq;
It was a laboratory situation which lacks ecological validity and does not represent real life/eq;
An audience during sport is more active and encouraging (or not) so affects an athlete more than the
audience in this study/eq;
The sample of male undergraduates is biased and does not represent all individuals well, particularly as
individual differences would have a great effect upon performance with or without an audience/eq;
Koivula (1995) – Describe (6)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Aimed to investigate gender based schematic information processing/eq;
She wanted to see if participants with a sex typed schema were more likely to
stereotype sports as male and female compared to less sex-typed participants/eq;
She wanted to look at gender differences in ratings of male and female typed
sports/eq;
Over 200 participants were used, many were university students and most
Caucasian/eq;
She used the BSRI to measure the degree to which participants were sex typed/eq;
Participants were asked to rate different sports as male or female or neutral/eq;
Further questionnaires were given to measure age, ethnicity and other personality
measures and attitudes/eq;
Most participants were sex typed from the BSRI score/eq;
Most participants were stereotypical when rating sports as male or female/eq;
Androgynous and undifferentiated participants from the BSRI were less likely to
rate certain sports as male or female/eq;
Men were more likely to sex type a sport than females/eq;
The results support gender schematic information processing/eq;
Koivula (1995) – Evaluate (6)
•
•
•
•
•
Questionnaires that ask a judgement of gender may encourage
traditional views of gender, which may have confounded the
results/eq;
Despite being instructed to ignore the number of males and
females who play a sport, the participants may have used this
knowledge and media coverage to make their judgements of male
and female sports/eq;
• The BSRI is a well established sex type inventory with a significant
number of filler items to prevent demand characteristics/eq;
• The sample was large but biased and the attitudes of Swedish,
white undergraduates many not be generalised to the general
population/eq;
• Rating scales used by these questionnaires may reflect opinion on
the day rather than an enduring attitude/eq;
Craft et al (2003) – Describe (6)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Aimed to see if there was a relationship between anxiety and sporting
performance/eq;
Anxiety involved a series of subscales; cognitive, somatic and self confidence/eq;
They conducted a meta-analysis of 29 studies which used the
CSAI-2 (IV) and sporting performance (DV)/eq;
A positive correlation was expected between self confidence and performance,
negative correlation between cognitive anxiety and performance and no
relationship between somatic anxiety and performance/eq;
They also explored the anxiety – performance relationship using a range of
sporting variables such as individual and team sports/eq;
They found that only self confidence was a useful indicator of sporting
performance and this was marginal/eq;
The subscales alone are not useful indicators of performance, but together show a
useful interrelationship/eq;
They concluded that cognitive and somatic anxiety are interdependent/eq;
Craft et al (2003) – Evaluate (6)
• Self confidence measured by the CSAI-2 may be more a
measure of global confidence rather than sports related
activity confidence/eq;
• The CSAI-2 may not be a useful psychometric measure of
anxiety/eq;
• Like an meta-analysis only comparable groups of
athletes/samples/similarity of measures were used but
matching for all properties is clearly not possible and
variation may distort results/eq;
• For example some studies administered the CSAI-2 some
time before the event and some immediately before/some
were administered in groups and some individuals/eq;
Level 4
10-12 marks
• Candidate has attempted and answered both injunctions in the question
very well.
• Description must include good breadth and depth of knowledge of the
study (all of APRC).
• Evaluation includes appropriate strengths / weaknesses clearly and
accurately explained on a range of issues with very good detail and
explanation.
• The skills needed to produce convincing extended writing are in place.
Very few syntactical and /or spelling errors may be found. Very good
organisation and planning.
• Given time constraints and limited number of marks, full marks must be
given when the answer is reasonably detailed even if not all the
information is present.
January 2011
D1 (a) Juan conducted a correlational study to
investigate heart rate and sporting performance
in professional athletes.
Describe the correlational research method as it
is used in sport psychology. (3)
Describe the correlational research method as
it is used in sport psychology. (3)
• To look for a relationship/link between two variables/eq;
• Quantitative measures, such as heart rate/questionnaire
scoring, are taken and analysed together/eq;
• Two data sets are ranked and related to see if one variable
changes alongside the other/eq;
• If both variables rise together it is seen as a positive
correlation and if one variable rises and the other falls it is
seen as a negative correlation/eq;
• If no pattern can be found between the variables, then
there is no correlation/relationship/eq;
• Strength of correlations are indicated by a correlation
coefficient scoring between -1 0 +1/eq;
January 2011
(b) Evaluate the correlation as a research
method. (3)
(b) Evaluate the correlation as a
research method. (3)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Because the data gathered is quantitative the correlational analysis can be repeated to establish
reliable findings/eq;
We cannot be sure that the measured variables are causal, cannot show cause and effect/eq;
There may be innumerable variables that impacted upon one, other than the variable being
measured/eq;
The correlation relies upon reliable data, and if gathered by questionnaire/physiological measures,
they can change day to day/eq;
Correlations can be subject to statistical analysis to ensure a firm relationship is established/eq;
Questionnaires used to gather correlational data can be subject to social desirability/eq;
Correlations are ethical compared to other research methods such as laboratory, field experiments
as ethical issues rarely arise from the use of secondary data/eq;
The collection of primary data for a correlation has to consider the ethical issues when using human
participants/eq;
A strength of correlation is that the can be done where legally, ethically or practically it may not be
possible to conduct experimental research/eq;
A strength is that previously existing/secondary data can be used to save time and cost of primary
research/eq;
It is a precursor to experimental research as it is an inexpensive/ethical tool before costly
research/eq;
January 2011
(c) Using the same professional athletes, Juan
decided to gather qualitative data by conducting
interviews.
Explain what is meant by qualitative data. (2)
Explain what is meant by qualitative
data. (2)
• Gathered through open questions + narrative not
number/eq;
• Narrative rather than number + indepth beliefs/eq;
• In-depth beliefs, attitudes, understanding and knowledge
gathered + open questions/eq;
• Often subject to thematic analysis/interpretation/eq;
• Example: A sports person can be asked about their
favourite sport and why they like it is an open question/eq;
• Open questions, such as why do you play sport, allow
detailed answers that are qualitative in nature/eq;
• Qualitative data in the form of open questions allows free
response and therefore does not force an answer/eq;
January 2011
D2 (a) A talent scout noticed that the
performance of a young footballer was better
when training than in a real match.
Explain this difference between training and
match performance using one theory of
arousal/anxiety/audience effect you have
studied. (3)
Explain this difference between training and match
performance using one theory of
arousal/anxiety/audience effect you have studied. (3)
• Possible theories include: Inverted U
hypothesis, evaluation apprehension theory,
catastrophe theory, optimal level of arousal
theory, drive theory, there may be others.
• Considered on next slides:
Explain this difference between training and match
performance using one theory of
arousal/anxiety/audience effect you have studied. (3)
Eg Inverted U hypothesis
• The footballers performance drop can be explained by the inverted
U hypothesis as a consequence of heightened arousal/eq;
• The footballer was performing at his best/optimal level in
training/eq;
• When in a match his arousal level was too high and this had a
deleterious effect on performance/eq;
• Football can involve fine motor skills which is better suited to low
arousal/eq;
• The footballers skills were new, and high anxiety affected skills that
were not well practiced/eq;
• The inverted U explains how performance increases with arousal up
to an optimal level past which it deteriorates/eq;
Explain this difference between training and match
performance using one theory of
arousal/anxiety/audience effect you have studied. (3)
Eg Evaluation apprehension
• Low performance could be due to evaluation
apprehension as the match is an evaluation of
performance/eq;
• Gradually anxiety has built up because he has been
criticised during matches in the past/eq;
• He feared negative evaluation from an audience which
was not in training – so performance fell/eq;
• During the match it tested his skills more than training,
and this lead to increase anxiety too/eq;
Explain this difference between training and match
performance using one theory of
arousal/anxiety/audience effect you have studied. (3)
Eg Catastrophe theory (credit inverted U
description in addition to below comments).
– Anxiety increased throughout the match resulting
in dramatic deterioration at a critical point during
the match/eq;
– The footballer worried more about his
performance during a match than training and this
cognitive evaluation led to fret/eq;
January 2011
(b) Describe the findings (results and/or
conclusions) of one study you have learned
about in sport psychology, other than Boyd and
Munroe (2003). (3)
(b) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of one
study you have learned about in sport psychology, other than
Boyd and Munroe (2003). (3)
Possible studies include:
• Cottrell et al (1968)
• Koivula (1995)
• Craft et al (2003)
(b) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of one
study you have learned about in sport psychology, other than
Boyd and Munroe (2003). (3)
Cottrell et al (1968)
• Non-competitive groups performed better (error rate) on word pair
recall than competitive groups irrespective of audience or learning
speed/eq;
• Competitive groups with an audience performed worse (more
errors) with an audience than without/eq;
• Unless they were fast learners who made fewer errors without an
audience in the competitive group/eq;
• Fast learners perform better with an audience than without/eq;
• Mere presence did not have an effect, the audience had to be in
apposition of judgement to have an effect/eq;
• However, slower learners perform worse with an audience/eq;
• Audience enhances a dominant response/eq;
(b) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of one
study you have learned about in sport psychology, other than
Boyd and Munroe (2003). (3)
Koivula (1995)
– ‘sex typed’ individuals were the largest group for both males and
females tested (48% and 43% respectively)/eq;
– Most sports were regarded as gender neutral/eq;
– Certain sports were regarded as more appropriate for each gender
that seemed consistent with social views on sports genders/eq;
– Gender based schematic information informed choices about what
was gender appropriate sports/eq;
– Sex typed men rated masculine sports as more masculine than other
types or women/eq;
– Koivula believes that male dominated sports reflect male dominated
society and validate a male domain in sport/eq;
– Non-sex typed males and females tend to challenge gender
stereotypes beliefs about sport type/eq;
(b) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of one
study you have learned about in sport psychology, other than
Boyd and Munroe (2003). (3)
Craft et al (2003)
– meta-analysis showed no relationship between
anxiety and performance overall/eq;
– There was a positive relationship between self esteem
and performance/eq:
– Top sporting athletes showed a positive correlation
between anxiety and performance which was not
evident in lower sporting athletes/eq;
– Anxiety will not show a correlation if the inverted U
hypothesis is true as a theory of anxiety/eq;
January 2011
(c) Evaluate the study you described in (b) in
terms of both reliability and validity.
(4)
(c) Evaluate the study you described in (b) in terms of
both reliability (R) and validity (V).
(4)
Cottrell et al (1968)
• R: Other research contradicts the mere presence of the audience as
having an effect on performance/eq;
• V: Sporting performance is far different than word pair recall or
recognition tasks, so the findings may not represent sporting
performance at all/eq;
• V: Anxiety and audience is a practiced situation for athletes who are
accustomed to such situations within the field of a physical
sport/eq;
• V: The study lacks ecological validity as they are often test on
physical skill rather than cognitive skill/eq;
• R: Independent groups were used to prevent order effects but
participant difference may affect results in the competitive/noncompetitive and audience groups/eq;
(c) Evaluate the study you described in (b) in terms of
both reliability (R) and validity (V).
(4)
Koivula (1995)
– V: Asking participants about gendered sports could provoke a
gendered schema and result in invalid results/eq;
– V: Social desirability may have skewed the participants responses into
providing either sex typed or non-sexed typed responses/eq;
– V: The researcher used the participants own gender stereotypes rather
than generalised categories, making the results more relevant and
valid to the participants used/eq;
– V: Filler items/distracter questions were used to prevent demand
characteristics so the participants could not try and guess the true aim
of the study/eq;
– R: Generalisability of the findings can only be limited to Swedish
sporting culture/young/white/students/eq;
– R: Questionnaires and self ratings are considered unreliable as beliefs
and attitudes may differ according to time, mood, experience, etc/eq;
(c) Evaluate the study you described in (b) in terms of
both reliability (R) and validity (V).
(4)
Craft et al (2003)
• R: The researchers acknowledged that arousal would be likely to
yield a zero correlation based on the inverted U hypothesis overall,
but failed to validate this with any further statistics/eq;
• V: Team sports and individual sports were not accounted for in this
meta-analysis which needs to refined as audience and arousal
would have different effects on each/eq;
• R: Despite the robust qualifying criteria of studies used in a metaanalysis in terms of similarity, each study would be likely to differ in
standardisation, procedure and measurement significantly to make
comparison difficult/eq;
• R: The questionnaire used was a reliable and trustworthy
source/eq;
January 2011
D3 - Sophie and Becky are sisters. Sisters share
50% of their genes. Sophie is an excellent
athlete winning regional competitions, whereas
Becky is not sporty at all.
Describe and evaluate two explanations for
Sophie and Becky’s individual differences in
sporting performance. (12)
Describe and evaluate two explanations for Sophie and Becky’s
individual differences in sporting performance. (12)
Describe and evaluate two explanations for Sophie and Becky’s
individual differences in sporting performance. (12)
Describe and evaluate two explanations for Sophie and Becky’s
individual differences in sporting performance. (12)
• Suitable examples include: Personality theory,
Reinforcement.
• The next slides will break down each answer:
• Other suitable answers are Socialisation and
Attribution,
Describe and evaluate two explanations for Sophie and Becky’s
individual differences in sporting performance. (12)
Description (AO1) Eg. Personality theory
• Athletes are born with an introverted or extraverted personality
• This is a biological basis for personality
• Extroverts have a reduced stimulation of the RAS (reticular
activating system) so seek excitement
• Extrovert therefore have a more outgoing and competitive nature
• Introverts have an over stimulated RAS resulting in avoidance of
sensation
• Introverts are shy and avoid competition
• Introverts avoid sport and extroverts seek it out to reach optimal
cortical activity
• Personality theory also considers the role of the environment in
terms of conditioning
• Becky and Sophie should have inherited the same biological basis
for their personality, so should be similar in sporting ability
Describe and evaluate two explanations for Sophie and Becky’s
individual differences in sporting performance. (12)
Description (AO1) Eg. Reinforcement
• Sporting people are given reinforcement for taking up sport whilst
others may not
• Praise such as trophies and awards can be positive reinforcement
for good athletes
• Intrinsic reinforcement, such as satisfaction, can also explain why
some take up sport seriously
• Social interaction and friends can also provide reinforcement for
some to pursue sports
• Not all athletes receive praise – if they lose – this variable ratio
increases persistence
• Sophie and Becky may have received differing reinforcement from
• parents/coaches that would explain this situation
Describe and evaluate two explanations for Sophie and Becky’s
individual differences in sporting performance. (12)
Description (AO2) Eg. Personality theory
• Physiological measures have shown higher
cortical arousal in extroverts than introverts
• We cannot be sure whether extroversion is a
cause or result of cortical arousal
• There are many other reasons for being sporting
than personality – many opt for sport because of
family or friends
• Sophie and Becky are different despite having the
same biological basis, so this theory cannot
explain their sporting differences
Describe and evaluate two explanations for Sophie and Becky’s
individual differences in sporting performance. (12)
Description (AO2) Eg. Reinforcement
• Coaches using positive reinforcement to
encourage sporting performance
• Sports personalities commonly cite a sporting
hero as an explanation for their success (SLT)
• Despite reinforcement, some people are just
not very good at sport so do not excel
June 2011
D1 – (a) What is meant by ‘sport psychology’?
(3)
D1 – (a) What is meant by ‘sport
psychology’? (3)
Definition
• Is about understanding how people choose certain sports/how sports
performance can be improved/what makes someone a good sports person (or
not)/eq;
Elaboration (theory, research, concepts)
• For example, Eysenck would suggest that extroverts seek competitive
sports as they are sensation seekin/eq;
• For example, moderate parental involvement leads to likelihood of
sporting success in athletes studied/eq;
• For example, Feltz and Landers found that mental imagery improved
performance compared to those who used no imagery/eq;
• The inverted U hypothesis shows a drop in performance at a critical
point/eq;
• Attribution of success/failure can affect future performance/eq;
• Climbers and track and field athletes use different forms of imagery/eq;
June 2011
D1
(b) After a team lost an important netball match,
the team coach wanted to improve performance
before the next game.
Explain how the coach might have used
achievement motivation theory to improve the
performance of this team. (2)
Explain how the coach might have used achievement
motivation theory to improve the performance of this team. (2)
One mark per point/elaboration. Max 1 for general
description of achievement motivation theory – even if linked
tentatively at the end ‘the coach should do this’.
• The coach would exploit the need for praise and offer the
netball team encouragement/eq;
• Self satisfaction can be increased by offering small
achievements/goals that can be met during practice/eq;
• The coach could assess their need for achievement and
challenge them if this need was high/eq;
• If the netball team has high nAch they will not be phased
by setbacks so the coach can set high risk challenges/eq;
June 2011
(c) Evaluate achievement motivation theory. (3)
(c) Evaluate achievement motivation
theory. (3)
• The need for achievement is commonly recorded using self reports
which may be unreliable/eq;
• The research is based on a personality trait rather than a feature of
sporting competition/interaction between personality and
situational factors/eq;
• Butt and Cox (1992) found higher levels of achievement motivation
(N-Ach) in top class US tennis players in the Davis Cup compared to
lower level competitors/eq;
• The theory can be used to develop the need for achievement in
sportspeople by coaches/eq;
• Research suggests that high achievers take on more difficult tasks
than low achievers, which is consistent with achievement
motivation theory/eq;
• Without sporting ability, achievement motivation theory is limited
in explaining sporting success/eq;
• The results of projective tests used to judge achievement
motivation, are subjectively interpreted/eq;
June 2011
(d) The netball team also lost their next big
game, so the coach decided to use a different
method to motivate the team.
Make two comparison points between
achievement motivation and one other theory
of motivation you have learned in sport
psychology. (2)
Make two comparison points between achievement motivation
and one other theory of motivation you have learned in sport
psychology. (2)
One mark per comparison point. Reject personality theory, the inverted U hypothesis
and evaluation apprehension theory as they are theories of performance not theories
of motivation. Imagery and goal setting are performance enhancers, but can be used
to improve motivation as well as skills.
Achievement motivation and self efficacy theory
• In achievement motivation the underpinning motivation is drawn from the need
for achievement whereas in self efficacy it is drawn from self confidence/eq;
• Self confidence is more likely to predict success than need for achievement/eq;
• Both rely on an internal mental state to explain achievement/eq;
Achievement motivation and cognitive evaluation
• Achievement motivation has the underpinning motivation arises from a need for
achievement whereas cognitive evaluation involves intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation (evaluation of this) for achieving/eq;
• Essentially the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can be the same as a need for
achievement- they can be the same thing/eq;
• Both involve reward/eq;
June 2011
D2 – (a) Luanne conducted a questionnaire to
investigate how sprinters felt after a big race.
She collected both quantitative and qualitative
data.
Explain what is meant by quantitative data. (2)
Explain what is meant by quantitative
data. (2)
•
•
•
•
Gathered through closed ended questions/eq;
Likert scales can be used to gain judgement/eq;
Number rather than narrative /eq;
Superficial information is gathered about beliefs
and opinions/eq;
• Often subject to statistical analysis/eq;
• A sports person can be asked about their
favourite sport and rate it/eq;
June 2011
D2 –
(b) Explain what is meant by qualitative data. (2)
(b) Explain what is meant by
qualitative data. (2)
• Gathered through open
questions/interviews/eq;
• Narrative rather than number/eq;
• In depth beliefs, attitudes, understanding and
knowledge gathered/eq;
• Often subject to thematic analysis/eq;
• A sports person can be asked about their
favourite sport and why they like it/eq;
June 2011
D2 –
(c) In terms of validity and reliability, evaluate
questionnaires as a research method in sport
psychology. (4)
(c) In terms of validity and reliability, evaluate
questionnaires as a research method in sport
psychology. (4)
Validity:
– If a respondent guesses the aim of the study they may
answer in a way that reflects the demands of the
questionnaire rather than honesty/eq;
– Answers may reflect social desirability rather than reality
so findings are invalid/eq;
– Respondents may lie if they feel they are being judged on
their answer/eq;
– Open questions can gather rich qualitative information/eq;
– There are many ways of asking the same question, which
can check for construct validity/eq;
– Asking athletes as opposed to inferring from experiments
can be seen as more valid/eq;
(c) In terms of validity and reliability, evaluate
questionnaires as a research method in sport
psychology. (4)
Reliability:
• Questionnaires can have test-retest reliability and
scores can be checked over time/participants/eq;
• If questions are open ended, this may be
subjectively interpreted by researchers/eq;
• Pilot studies are typically conducted to ensure the
reliability of specific questions
• Some participants may answer in a way they
think they ought to answer so results can be
unreliable/eq;
June 2011
D3 - Describe Boyd and Munroe’s (2003) study
of the use of imagery in climbing and evaluate it
in terms of both generalisability and practical
applications.
You must include the aim(s), procedure, result(s)
and conclusion(s) in your description. (12)
You must include the aim(s), procedure, result(s) and conclusion(s) in your
description. (12)
Description points (AO1)
•
Aimed to see if there was a difference in the use of imagery between beginner and advanced climbers
•
Aimed to investigate the difference in imagery use between climbers and track athletes
•
Hypothesised that climbers would be higher on CG and use MG-A more than track athletes
•
Hypothesised that climbers would score low on MS than track athletes because they tend not to focus on
extrinsic motivation
•
Hypothesised that beginner climbers would use imagery strategies to reduce anxiety (MG-A) than
experienced climbers
•
38 track athletes and 48 climbers, of which 18 were beginners and 30 experienced climbers, participated
in this study
•
The track athletes completed the SIQ and the climbers completed a modified version called the CIQ
•
Track athletes scored higher on average on MS than climbers overall
•
Track athletes scored a higher mean average for MG-M so felt more confident and controlled than
climbers, whereas climbers scored lower on MG-A so were able to control anxiety levels
•
There was no significant difference found in the five imagery sub-scales between beginner and advanced
climbers
•
Climbers use intrinsic motivation more than extrinsic motivation because there is very little ‘winning’ in
climbing compared to track and field sports (audience)
•
Climbers scored low on confidence, which is more necessary in team sports than having outward
confidence in an isolated sport
You must include the aim(s), procedure, result(s) and conclusion(s) in your
description. (12)
Evaluation points (AO2)
Generalisability
• The sample sizes of each group were small and limited to one university track team and one
indoor climbing group which makes generalisability difficult and may account for the small
difference in trends between the data sets
• The questionnaire (SIQ) has been used before and found to be reliable in testing the
subscales of imagery use with sportspersons so the findings should be generalisable to other
sports people
Practical applications
• Climbers should use Cognitive General as an imagery technique to practice their climbing skill
as a strategy for an outside climb with no clear route marked for them
• Track athletes should use Motivational Specific as an imagery strategy to increase motivation
for winning
• Track athletes should use Motivational general Mastery to increase confidence and belief in
their ability to win, whereas climbers already have self confidence so don’t need this
technique specifically
• Imagery is a useful technique that all athletes could use but it does not substitute physical
practice
January 2012
D1 (a) Define the term ‘arousal’ as it is used in
psychology. (2)
D1 (a) Define the term ‘arousal’ as it is
used in psychology. (2)
• Arousal is a physiological state involving the autonomic
nervous system/eq;
• The sympathetic division of the ANS increases arousal (fight
or flight)/eq;
• The parasympathetic division of the ANS depresses arousal
to return to a normal physiological state of functioning/eq;
• In sport psychology arousal may be necessary for sporting
activities that involve physical exertion/eq;
• In sport psychology high levels of arousal are undesirable
and can cause exhaustion or lack of concentration/eq;
January 2012
D1
(b) Sarah was training for the Olympic archery
team. She often used the target practice field
after everyone else had left for the day. She felt
she was making progress, but when asked to
train in front of her team mates she did not
perform as well.
January 2012
D1
Using psychological research you have studied in
sport psychology, explain why Sarah may not
have performed as well in front of an audience.
(4)
Using psychological research you have studied in sport psychology, explain
why Sarah may not have performed as well in front of an audience (4)
• Sarah may have suffered from higher levels of arousal beyond the
optimum level according to the inverted U hypothesis/eq;
• The concentration needed for archery is high so she requires only
slight arousal/eq;
• Sarah may be less experienced than other archers, so high levels of
arousal due to being watched would have affected her more than
the more advanced archers/eq;
• Cottrell (1968) stated that unsupportive audience can lead to
evaluation apprehension and this would affect her performance/eq;
• Aiello and Kolb found that audience affected less skilled workers,
supporting the notion that Sarah may not be as proficient at
archery and the audience is reducing her performance/eq;
January 2012
(C - i) Identify one study you have learned about
in sport psychology. (1)
(C - i) Identify one study you have
learned about in sport psychology. (1)
• Boyd and Munroe (2003) Imagery and
climbing study.
• Cottrell et al (1968) audience effect study.
• Koivula (1995) Gender and sporting
participation study.
• Craft et al (2003) Anxiety and sport
performance correlation study.
(C – ii) Outline one strength of the
study you identified in (c)(i). (2)
• Boyd and Munroe (2003) Imagery and
climbing study.
• Koivula (1995) Gender and sporting
participation study.
• Both covered on next slides:
January 2012
(C – ii) Outline one strength of the study you identified in
(c)(i). (2)
Boyd and Munroe (2003) Imagery and climbing study.
• A standardised questionnaire was used to ensure each
sports person experienced the same questions/eq;
(one mark)
• The SIQ has been tested for consistency in research
and reliable findings can be made with the same
questionnaire as comparison/eq; (2 marks)
January 2012
(C – ii) Outline one strength of the study you identified in
(c)(i). (2)
Koivula (1995) Gender and sporting participation study.
• The questionnaire used is standardised and established as a
consistent measure of sex typing/eq; (1 mark)
• The questionnaire included filler questions to ensure
participants did not guess the aim of the study and alter
their answers/eq; (1 mark)
• The questionnaire is standardised and established as a
consistent measure of sex typing, using filler questions to
avoid demand characteristics/eq; (2 marks)
January 2012
D2 During your course you will have conducted a practical
investigation on a topic in sport psychology using either a
content analysis or a summary of two article sources.
(a) What was the aim/purpose of your practical investigation?
(2)
(b) A summary or a content analysis require different
methods of gathering information to produce data. They
also involve different ways of analysing/ summarising the
findings.
Describe how you went about gathering and analysing/
summarising the data for your practical investigation. (3)
What was the aim/purpose of your
practical investigation? (2)
2 marks
• A clear aim/account of purpose so that the
examiner can clearly identify and understand
what was being done. Aims are realistic. e.g.
to see whether sports people self report the
use of imagery as a performance technique
Describe how you went about gathering and analysing/
summarising the data for your practical investigation. (3)
• Gathering data can involve the planning and sourcing of
materials/information (one or all parts can be given full credit
equally). It also covers the procedure, sampling, apparatus,
controls, coding/theme decisions and justifications given in order to
gather the data, keywords used in search for finding sources,
research tool (Internet) used, websites reviewed, narrowing of
sources, selection and rejection decisions (appropriateness, bias,
timeliness, credibility), devising coding units and tallying.
• Analysing/summarising can involve qualitative and/or quantitative
measures such as theme analysis, interpretation, shortening,
reviewing, reading, taking down main points, looking for
comparisons, totalling, graphs and tables, statistics.
No credit for conclusions.
January 2012
(C) Explain the findings (results and/or
conclusions) you have drawn from your practical
investigation. You must use psychological
concepts (e.g. research and/or theories) that
you have studied. (4)
(C) Explain the findings (results and/or conclusions) you have drawn from
your practical investigation. You must use psychological concepts (e.g.
research and/or theories) that you have studied. (4)
4 marks
• Thorough, clear and detailed comments about
results and/or conclusions. There will be a
good/detailed explanation of the findings with
reference to research, theories and/or
concepts drawn from the approach.
January 2012
D3 - To prepare for the 2012 Olympics, the Head
Coach is trying out new techniques with the team
to improve their sporting performance.
Describe and evaluate one psychological technique
that the Head Coach might use with the team to
improve their sporting performance.
As part of your evaluation you must compare your
chosen technique with a different technique that
can also be used to improve performance. (12)
As part of your evaluation you must compare your
chosen technique with a different technique that can
also be used to improve performance. (12)
• If more than one technique credit the best.
Suitable techniques include imagery, goal
setting, attribution retraining, learning
theories. There are others.
Description (AO1)
e.g. Imagery
• The coach could use imagery to visualise winning a match.
• The coach could imagine the feeling of winning and receiving a gold
medal.
• The team could imagine the muscular power/breathing during a good
match.
• Imagery requires visualising and feeling the desired goal.
• Imagery allows the athlete to put themselves ‘mentally’ into the situation
of winning which acts as a motivation.
• Mental rehearsal of the imagery can increase familiarity and confidence
and reduce anxiety.
• Cognitive general imagery involves the imagining of overall success.
• Cognitive specific imagery concerns picturing success at a specific skill.
Description (AO1)
e.g. Goal setting
– Target/goal setting would involve the coach setting specific targets to achieve in the
sport.
– The coach might set a goal of the team beating their current time as it would act as a
motivation to succeed.
– The goal needs to be SMART because unsmart targets could be demotivating for the
team.
– Goals must be Specific, Measurable, Achievable /attainable /appropriate, realistic and
time measured.
– Goals can be performance based on a specific skill or outcome based on overall winning.
– Specific targets should not be vague so that a specific goal can be focused upon eg
service hand.
– Measurable targets allow a benchmark to be set so that improvement can be monitored
to show improvement.
– Appropriate targets are relevant to the sportsperson.
– Realistic targets are not too difficult or easy so demotivation through underperformance
or unachievable aims.
– Time based targets encourage and sustain motivation for appropriate time period.
Evaluation (AO2)
• e.g. Imagery
– Feltz and Landers (1983) found that overall studies
found imagery to be better than no mental imagery at
all.
– Imagery is not a substitute for physical practice.
– Isaac (1992) found that high imagery trampolinists
performed better the low and no imagery groups.
– Research into imagery has been experimental, so the
technique lacks field trials to achieve validity.
– Imagery is quite specific and may lead to greater
physical practice of the skill, which would account for
the improvement rather than the imagery itself.
Evaluation (AO2)
• e.g. Goal setting
– Mellalieu (2005) found that SMART targets set for
rugby players showed considerable sporting
improvement in those skills compared to the skills
that were not targeted.
– Because self generated targets are most effective, this
itself may be intrinsically motivational.
– Targets that are unrealistic may not be achieved and
act as a demotivator.
– Goal setting, unlike imagery, is more likely to involve
physical practice which will improve performance.
Comparison
e.g. Imagery and goal setting
• Goal setting involves practical/physical activity whereas imagery involves
mental/cognitive activity.
• Both techniques allow the athlete to motivate themselves intrinsically
through visualising the goal or meeting set targets.
• The techniques have rarely been experimentally tested with high
performing sportspeople, so may only be useful where improvement can
be considerable rather than discrete.
• Both have been tested using field studies so the findings are likely to be
valid as they are about actual sporting performance
• Boyd and Munroe found differences in imagery use between track and
field athletes and climbers.
• There are other factors that could affect performance, such as audience,
fitness etc, it would be difficult to accurately measure the success of
either technique on sporting performance.
• Goal setting requires physical effort compared to the relative lack of effort
required in imagery.
June 2012
(For question D1 (a), put a cross in the correct box to indicate your
answer. If you change your mind, put a line through the box and then
put a cross in another box.)
D1 Yusef is a key player in his team. The team has qualified for the
Olympic Games.
(a) Which of the following is the best example of intrinsic motivation?
•
•
•
•
A
B
C
D
Yusef wants to win for his family.
Yusef wants to win for his own fulfilment.
Yusef wants to win a medal for his team.
Yusef wants to win to be on television.
June 2012
(For question D1 (a), put a cross in the correct box to indicate your
answer. If you change your mind, put a line through the box and then
put a cross in another box.)
D1 Yusef is a key player in his team. The team has qualified for the
Olympic Games.
(a) Which of the following is the best example of intrinsic motivation?
•
•
•
•
A
B
C
D
Yusef wants to win for his family.
Yusef wants to win for his own fulfilment.
Yusef wants to win a medal for his team.
Yusef wants to win to be on television.
June 2012
(b) Yusef has noticed that his team is nervous
when anyone mentions the Olympic Games.
Yusef believes this is affecting their
performance.
Describe how Yusef might go about researching
this issue with his team. Make it clear which
research method Yusef might use and the
procedure he might follow. (4)
Describe how Yusef might go about researching this issue with his team.
Make it clear which research method Yusef might use and the procedure he
might follow. (4)
• Questionnaires can be used to gather data on the athletes
perception of performance when the games are mentioned
• Yusef can repeat the questionnaires several times to track sporting
progress when talking about the games or not as a comparison of
anxiety
• Questionnaires can gather self report data using open questions
and/or closed questions to investigate the teams feelings
• Yusef can gather Qualitative (open questions) and/or quantitative
data (closed questions) to analyse
• He might have to question the team individually to prevent others
influencing answers
• Anonymous questionnaires would help prevent social desirability
June 2012
(C) Yusef conducted further research into the
issue of his team’s performance. In this study he
collected quantitative data.
Outline what is meant by quantitative data. (3)
Outline what is meant by quantitative
data. (3)
• Data that is numerical as it is gathered by
closed ended questions/ranked scales/eq;
• Can be presented in tables/graphs/can be
analysed using a statistical test/eq;
• Is not discourse/open to interpretation/eq;
June 2012
(D) Explain why quantitative data might be
better to use than qualitative data in sport
psychology. (2)
(D) Explain why quantitative data might be
better to use than qualitative data in sport
psychology. (2)
• It can be subject to statistical analysis so that
probability can be tested and generalisations to
sporting performance for example made with
confidence/eq;
• It is easier and quicker to analyse compared to lengthy
interpretation/eq;
• More objective and less chance of subjective
interpretation or bias/eq;
• Larger sample base can be achieved quickly/eq;
• Large data sets about sporting performance can be
used by coaches to improve their own teams
performance/eq;
June 2012
D2 (a) Using your understanding of achievement
motivation theory, define the term ‘need for
achievement’ (nAch). (2)
Using your understanding of achievement motivation theory,
define the term ‘need for achievement’ (nAch). (2)
• An individual’s desire to achieve at a particular
task/eq;
• High need for achievement is for wanting to
achieve the most and take on difficult
challenges/eq;
• Those with low need for achievement aim
lower and take on easy challenges/eq;
June 2012
D2
(b) Explain how a coach might use achievement
motivation theory to improve the performance
of her football team. (2)
Explain how a coach might use achievement
motivation theory to improve the performance
of her football team. (2)
• The coach would exploit a need for praise and offer
encouragement/eq;
• Self satisfaction can be increased by offering small
achievements/goals that can be met during practice/eq;
• The coach could assess the teams need for achievement and
challenge them if their need was high/eq;
• If the football team members have a high nAch they will not be
phased by setbacks so the coach can set high risk challenges/eq;
• With a high nAch, the coach could set them the challenge of
winning the next event to motivate the team/eq;
• To satisfy a high NPow the coach could set individual team
members the challenge of being captain if he/she scores a goal/eq;
• Train as a whole group to satisfy a high Naffill/eq;
June 2012
D2
(c) Evaluate achievement motivation theory. (4)
Evaluate achievement motivation
theory. (4)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The need for achievement is commonly recorded using self reports which may be
unreliable/eq;
The research is based on a personality trait rather than a feature of sporting
competition/interaction between personality and situational factors/eq;
Butt and Cox (1992) found higher levels of achievement motivation (N-Ach) in top
class US tennis players in the Davis Cup compared to lower level competitors/eq;
The theory can be used to develop the need for achievement in sportspeople by
coaches/eq;
Research suggests that high achievers take on more difficult tasks than low
achievers, which is consistent with achievement motivation theory/eq;
Without sporting ability, achievement motivation theory is limited in explaining
sporting success/eq;
The results of projective tests used to judge achievement motivation, are
subjectively interpreted/eq;
June 2012
(D3) - James disliked sport and never wanted to take part in games at school.
His best friend Jasper participated in sport a lot and won many races.
During your course you will have studied one of the following explanations for
individual differences in sporting participation and performance:
• socialisation
• attribution
• reinforcement.
Describe and evaluate one explanation from the list. In your answer use the
explanation to account for the differences between James’s and Jasper’s
participation in sport. (12)
Describe and evaluate one explanation from the list. In your answer use the
explanation to account for the differences between James’s and Jasper’s
participation in sport. (12)
Description - Socialisation
• Jasper may have been raised in a sporting family
and internalised the values of his parents.
• Jasper may be modelling his parents behaviour as
it is an expected norm.
• Socialisation is the cultural transmission of
values, customs and beliefs, and such emphasis
on Jasper’s sport may reflect these values.
• Cultural transmission occurs via primary
socialisers such as Jaspers parents and teachers
that may be sporting themselves.
Describe and evaluate one explanation from the list. In your answer use the
explanation to account for the differences between James’s and Jasper’s
participation in sport. (12)
Evaluation - Socialisation
– There are sporty children from non sporty
backgrounds and non sporty children from sporty
backgrounds, so socialisation cannot be the only
determinant of this behaviour.
– This theory ignores the role of reinforcement into
sporting behaviour and the role of biological factors.
– Socialisation can explain why the majority of females
and male choose to do gendered sports.
– Koivula found that sports are largely gender typed,
supporting the idea of socialisation.
Describe and evaluate one explanation from the list. In your answer use the
explanation to account for the differences between James’s and Jasper’s
participation in sport. (12)
Description - Reinforcement
– Jasper may have been encouraged to do sports by his
parents/teachers.
– Jasper could have gained reinforcement from winning trophies.
– Jasper may have reinforcement from intrinsic motivation to
perform at his personal best.
– During training he receives reinforcement through the social
aspects of team sports.
– James has never received any reinforcement from his
parents/teachers.
– James took part in a sport but came last which provided no
reinforcement to do well.
Describe and evaluate one explanation from the list. In your answer use the
explanation to account for the differences between James’s and Jasper’s
participation in sport. (12)
Evaluation - Reinforcement
• Not all sports people receive rewards as they cannot
win every time.
• This theory ignores personality traits and biological
sporting ability as an explanation of individual
differences.
• It is difficult to establish cause and effect between
reinforcement and sporting ability and performance in
every day life.
• Many people are encouraged to participate in sport,
but not all desire to or do well.
January 2013
D 1 - Sports psychologists use questionnaires to
investigate why people choose to participate in
certain sports. Questionnaires use different
types of questions to gather qualitative and
quantitative data.
(a) Explain one strength of quantitative data. (2)
Explain one strength of quantitative
data. (2)
• It is easy to analyse as it is numbers rather
than narrative/first mark/eq; it can be easily
subject to a statistical test to determine
significance 2nd mark/eq;
• It is not open to interpretation like qualitative
data 1st mark/eq;It is objective and therefore
more scientific 2nd mark/eq;
January 2013
(b) Explain why qualitative data might be of
greater value to sports psychologists than
quantitative data.
You must refer to sport psychology in your
answer. (3)
You must refer to sport psychology in
your answer. (3)
• It gathers more rich and detailed information to help understand the
psychology of sport better than quantitative data/eq;
• It allows sports psychologists to understand reasons behind choices which
goes deeper than quantitative data/eq;
• It allows respondents to respond freely about their sporting
preference/ability without constraints of closed ended questions/eq;
• It allows sports psychologists to explore topics in greater depth compared
to quantitative data/eq;
• Subtle information may be achieved that cannot be achieved with preset
answers/eq;
• It helps explore hypotheses in sport psychology that may lead to more
experimental research/eq;
• It can be gathered via interview which may go some way to avoiding social
desirability and demand characteristics compared to preset question on a
questionnaire/eq;
January 2013
(C) A sports psychologist was interested to see if
there was a relationship between sporting
performance and anxiety.
Explain how the sports psychologist might
gather and/or analyse correlational data to
investigate this relationship between sporting
performance and anxiety. (3)
Explain how the sports psychologist might gather and/or analyse
correlational data to investigate this relationship between
sporting performance and anxiety. (3)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
They would first gather numerical data on performance and anxiety/eq;
Anxiety could be measured with a closed ended questionnaire and performance as the number of
wins/eq;
The results of the questionnaire/number of wins are calculated and quantified into one score for
each measure of anxiety and performance/eq;
Each score is ranked for each individual and compared to the scores of other participants/eq;
The scores are placed in a scattergraph to visually detect any link/eq;
If the points on the graph rise together it is a positive correlation and if the points decline it is a
negative correlation, random points can suggest no correlation/eq;
A line of best fit would be used to judge the deviation of points from a trend analysis/eq:
A (Spearman’s rho) statistical test is used to find the correlation coefficient/eq;
The coefficient is used to determine the relationship as positive, negative or no correlation/eq;
-1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, 0 indicates no correlation and +1 indicates a perfect
positive correlation/eq;
Coefficients between +/-1 but not 0 show some/weak/moderate degree of correlation/eq;
Scattergraphs can be used to uncover curvilinear relationships (as in the inverted U)/eq;
January 2013
D 2 - Two physical education teachers, Jim and Sonia, noticed that
some students in their classes avoided sports, while others were keen
to take part, and some students were better at sports than others.
Jim believed that these individual differences were due to personality
traits. Sonia, however, disagreed with this biological explanation.
(a) Describe one explanation that Sonia might use to help understand
the individual differences in sporting participation and/or
performance in her class. Do not use a biological explanation. (3)
(b) Evaluate the explanation of sporting participation and/or
performance you have described in (a). (4)
(c) Explain why the personality trait theory that Jim favours might
better explain individual differences in sporting participation
and/or performance than the explanation you described in (a).
You may wish to use research evidence in your answer. (3)
Describe one explanation that Sonia might use to help understand the
individual differences in sporting participation and/or performance in her
class. Do not use a biological explanation. (3)
• The focus is on participation and performance,
arousal, anxiety, audience. Accept ‘motivation’
to pursue a sport e.g. achievement
motivation, as a theory of performance.
Describe one explanation that Sonia might use to help understand the
individual differences in sporting participation and/or performance in her
class. Do not use a biological explanation. (3)
Socialisation
• The cultures may differ in her class and each
culture may view sport as desirable or not/eq;
• Family and peers may encourage some students
to engage in sport more than others/eq;
• Some families may be actively engaged in sport
themselves, which normalises and motivates
sport in their family/eq;
• Sport may be nurtured with positive
reinforcement and parental involvement/eq;
Describe one explanation that Sonia might use to help understand the
individual differences in sporting participation and/or performance in her
class. Do not use a biological explanation. (3)
Reinforcement
• Some children may be coached with positive
reinforcement such as praise/eq;
• Similar to successive approximation, the level of
performance must be increased to achieve the
same praise/eq;
• Extrinsic reinforcers such as trophies can be used
to encourage performance/eq;
• The sense of achievement felt when performing
well is a strong intrinsic reinforcement/eq;
Describe one explanation that Sonia might use to help understand the
individual differences in sporting participation and/or performance in her
class. Do not use a biological explanation. (3)
Attribution
• Some of her classmates might believe the cause of a sporting failure is due
to incompetence (internal attribution) so not perform well in
sports/believe that a sporting success was due to a refs decision (external
attribution) so not perform well in sports/eq;
• Some of her classmates might believe they won a race due to good skills
(internal attribution) so participate and perform well/believe that a failure
in sport was due to poor equipment (external attribution) so not blame
themselves and perform well in future sports/eq;
• If the cause of a success or failure is in the control of the individual it can
determine whether they believe they are responsible for the success or
failure and therefore how they participate and perform in the future/eq;
• Lack of control and failure can lead to learned helplessness which can
affect future performance/eq;
Evaluate the explanation of sporting participation
and/or performance you have described in (a). (4)
Socialisation
• Koivula found gender schema associated with certain sports
indicating gender socialisation/eq;
• It is difficult to prove that socialisation affects performance or
participation as there may be biological (trait, skill) differences that
make the socialisation more likely to happen/eq;
• Most research is correlational, so cause and effect cannot be
established/eq;
• There are definite cultural norms and values associated with
participation in certain types of sport/eq;
• Socialisation cannot account for performance directly, some people
are just not good at sport despite being brought up around sporting
people/eq;
Evaluate the explanation of sporting participation
and/or performance you have described in (a). (4)
Reinforcement
• Coaches using positive reinforcement to encourage
sporting performance, and the whole sporting world uses
prizes and financial incentive to participate and perform
well – this suggests reinforcement is considered
effective/eq;
• Sports personalities commonly cite a sporting hero as an
explanation for their success (vicarious reinforcement)/eq;
• Despite reinforcement, some people are just not very good
at sport so do not excel/eq;
• It ignores biological reasons for sporting performance and
participation that is better explained by trait theories/eq;
Explain why the personality trait theory that Jim favours might better explain
individual differences in sporting participation and/or performance than the
explanation you described in (a).
You may wish to use research evidence in your answer. (3)
3 mark answer:
• Good reason why the biological explanation is better, well detailed and explained
OR more than two brief and basic reasons OR one done well and another
briefly/done well
• e.g., the biological explanation is based on more scientific evidence than social
explanations as physiological evidence can show reasons why some do well in
those sports, over others. For example Gale (1983) found a higher level of arousal
amongst extraverts as measured by EEG linking to why they may participate in
sports compared to introverts.
Indicative content.
• There is scientific physiological evidence that supports a biological explanation of
performance.
• Gale (1983) found a higher level of arousal amongst extraverts as measured by
EEG, physiological evidence not found in other theories.
• Extroverts tire more easily as they require greater levels of arousal to stimulate
their RAS which is scientific evidence for this theory compared to social theories.
• Biological theories are more scientifically testable than social theories.
January 2013
D3 - The inverted U hypothesis has been useful
in understanding sporting performance.
Describe and evaluate the inverted U
hypothesis.
Your evaluation must include at least one
comparison with a different theory of the effect
of arousal, anxiety and/or the audience on
performance. (12)
Your evaluation must include at least one comparison with a
different theory of the effect of arousal, anxiety and/or the
audience on performance. (12)
Description
• The inverted U hypothesis is a biological theory that explains sporting
performance relating to arousal and anxiety.
• Arousal is important in sport as it can improve performance.
• An optimum point is reached where peak performance is achieved.
• Too much arousal results in a loss of physical performance.
• According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, moderate arousal results in optimum
performance, but it really depends upon the type of sporting activity and
experience level of the individual.
• Fine motor control sports are better performed in a low state of arousal.
• Complex sports are best performed in a state of low arousal.
• High strength/power sports are best performed in high state of arousal.
• Simple tasks are better performed in high arousal state.
Your evaluation must include at least one comparison with a
different theory of the effect of arousal, anxiety and/or the
audience on performance. (12)
Evaluation
•
Experienced sportspeople can perform well with high arousal as there is less need to focus on a well practised
task.
•
Novices practise tasks using low arousal as concentration is needed in learning a new skill.
•
The catastrophe model points out that increases in anxiety may not result in a gradual drop in performance, as
even a modest increase in anxiety can result in a lull in sporting performance following the optimal arousal level.
•
The inverted U hypothesis can be usefully applied to help psyche up or relax a sportsperson to achieve the optimal
level of arousal needed for the type of sport and individual.
•
Experimental research to test the inverted U hypothesis has used techniques to relax or psych out an individual
(threat or incentive) which may cause anxiety/ego rather than arousal.
•
More recent multidimensional theories have tried to bridge the gap between physical arousal and cognitive
factors associated with sporting performance.
•
If skilled sportspeople need higher levels of arousal to perform, this might explain why records are broken more
frequently at large important events where pressure is very high.
•
Lowe’s (1974) Little League study found that baseball performance was better in moderate conditions rather than
critical or non-critical conditions during a game, supporting optimal performance.
•
A field study by Klavora (1978) followed a basketball team during a competition and found that coaches
assessments of performance related to standing in the tournament (high or low standing led to worse
performances).
•
Can explain how an audience can have an effect on performance.
•
The inverted U does not take into account variables associated with the audience and expectation of being viewed
as evaluation apprehension theory does.
•
Like evaluation apprehension it believes that arousal affects performance.
June 2013
D1 (a) Alan, a sports psychologist, is planning to
conduct a questionnaire into motivation in sport
by collecting quantitative data from a sample of
sports people.
Describe how Alan might go about gathering
and analysing quantitative data for his
questionnaire. (4)
Describe how Alan might go about gathering and analysing
quantitative data for his questionnaire. (4)
4 marks
• Very good detail of how quantitative data
might be gathered in sports psychology using
a range of ideas expressed well. Replication
possible given time constraints of exam. Must
refer to gathering data on sporting motivation.
June 2013
(b) - Alan found a difference in motivation
between different sports people. He wanted to
investigate these differences further to gather
more detailed information, such as how the
different sports people felt about their sport.
Explain how Alan might go about gathering and
analysing more detailed information from the
sports people. (4)
Explain how Alan might go about gathering and analysing more
detailed information from the sports people. (4)
• 4 marks
• Very good detail of how qualitative data might
be gathered in sports psychology using a range
of ideas expressed well. Replication possible
given time constraints of exam. Must refer to
gathering data on sporting motivation.
June 2013
D2 - (a) During your course you will have learned about one of
the following studies:
Cottrell et al (1968)
Koivula (1995)
Craft et al (2003)
(i) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of one
study from the list. (3)
Study .................................................................................
Findings
(i) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of
one study from the list. (3)
Koivula (1995)
• Most participants were sex typed from the BSRI score/eq;
• Most participants were stereotypical when rating sports as
male or female/eq;
• Androgynous and undifferentiated participants from the
BSRI were less likely to rate certain sports as male or
female/eq;
• Men were more likely to sex type a sport than females/eq;
• The results support gender schematic information
processing/eq;
(i) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of
one study from the list. (3)
Cottrell et al (1968)
• Audience improved performance on non-competitional tasks in
terms of speed of learning/eq;
• Error rate was highest with an audience on competitional task/eq;
• Slow learners produced a higher mean error rate on competitional
lists than fast learners with an audience, suggesting that audience
hinders performance on less proficient individuals/tasks/eq;
• In the second part of the study, mere-presence and audience was
tested by using a blindfolded participant/eq;
• Mere-presence had little effect on performance but with practice it
showed that audience improved performance/eq;
(i) Describe the findings (results and/or conclusions) of
one study from the list. (3)
Craft et al (2003)
• They found that only self confidence was a useful
indicator of sporting performance and this was
marginal/eq;
• The subscales alone are not useful indicators of
performance, but together show a useful
interrelationship/eq;
• They concluded that cognitive and somatic
anxiety are interdependent/eq;
June 2013
(ii) Evaluate the study you have described in
(a)(i) in terms of either reliability or ethics. (3)
(ii) Evaluate the study you have
described in (a)(i) in terms of either
reliability or ethics. (3)
Koivula (1995) Reliability
• Questionnaires that ask a judgement of gender may either
encourage traditional or modern views of gender so results may be
unreliable/eq;
• Despite being instructed to ignore the number of males and
females who play a sport, results may be unreliable as social
desirability may have been in play regarding different sports/eq;
• The BSRI is a well established sex type inventory with a significant
number of filler items to prevent demand characteristics/eq;
• The sample was large but biased and the attitudes of Swedish,
white undergraduates many not be reliable/eq;
• Rating scales used by these questionnaires may reflect opinion on
the day rather than an enduring attitude/eq;
(ii) Evaluate the study you have
described in (a)(i) in terms of either
reliability or ethics. (3)
Koivula (1995) Ethics
– Questionnaires are voluntary and rarely raise any
ethical issue regarding consent/eq;
– The nature of the investigation was partly masked so
informed consent was not established/eq;
– Asking questions about sex roles and sport is not likely
to lead to issues of distress/eq;
– Confidentiality is maintained as questionnaires can be
completed and submitted anonymously/eq;
(ii) Evaluate the study you have
described in (a)(i) in terms of either
reliability or ethics. (3)
Cottrell et al (1968) Reliability
• The type of performance is cognitive and unlikely to demonstrate
real audience effects within sport so findings will be unreliable in
comparison to real sporting performance/eq;
• An audience during sport is more active and encouraging (or not) so
affects an athlete more than the audience in this study/eq;
• The sample of male undergraduates is biased and does not
represent all individuals well, particularly as individual differences
would have a great effect upon performance with or without an
audience/eq;
• Laboratory based research such as this is highly controlled and
repeatable to show whether the results are reliable/eq;
• The measures taken were objectively taken and quantifiable so
avoids subjective interpretation/eq;
(ii) Evaluate the study you have
described in (a)(i) in terms of either
reliability or ethics. (3)
Cottrell et al (1968) Ethics
• The participants were put under stress as some
performed under audience conditions and felt
they were being pressured to perform/eq;
• Participants were not informed about the true
nature of the study/eq;
• The competitive groups suffered more stress as
they had to make no mistakes compared to the
non-competitive groups/eq;
(ii) Evaluate the study you have
described in (a)(i) in terms of either
reliability or ethics. (3)
Craft et al (2003) Reliability
• The CSAI-2 may not be a useful psychometric measure of
anxiety as it is context dependent so unreliable in different
contexts/eq;
• Like any meta-analysis only comparable groups of
athletes/samples/similarity of measures were used but
matching for all properties is clearly not possible and
variation may distort results/eq;
• For example some studies administered the CSAI-2 some
time before the event and some immediately before/some
were administered in groups and some individuals so
findings may be unreliable/eq;
(ii) Evaluate the study you have
described in (a)(i) in terms of either
reliability or ethics. (3)
Craft et al (2003) Ethics
• A meta analysis does not directly gather data
from participants so ethical issues are
minimised/eq;
• There was no need to gain informed consent or
right to withdraw as participants had already
agreed to these stipulations in the original
study/eq;
• Meta analysis does not distress participants as
secondary data is used/eq;
June 2013
(b) You have conducted a practical investigation (a content
analysis or a summary of two article sources) into a key issue
in sport psychology.
Imagine you have been asked to present the conclusions of
your practical investigation at a student conference.
Explain your conclusions about the key issue using concepts,
theories and/or research drawn from sport psychology.
Key issue (4)
Explain your conclusions about the key issue using concepts,
theories and/or research drawn from sport psychology.
Key issue (4)
4 marks
• Thorough, clear and detailed comments about
results and/or conclusions of the practical
investigation concerning a key issue in sports
psychology. There will be a good/detailed
explanation of the findings with reference to
research, theories and/or concepts drawn
from the approach.
June 2013
D3 – Following a lecture on achievement motivation
theory, Bella discussed alternative theories of
motivation in sport with her friends. Bella explained
that there were reasons for sporting motivation
other than a high need for achievement.
Describe one theory, other than use to explain
sporting motivation to her friends and evaluate this
theory.
You must refer to Bella in your answer. (12)
Describe one theory, other than use to explain
sporting motivation to her friends and evaluate
this theory.
Self efficacy (Bandura, 1977) Description
• Self efficacy is the belief in being able to do well that encourages self motivation.
• Belief in one’s ability/competence is a cognitive motivation.
• Self efficacy/self confidence will be sport specific.
• Self efficacy is dependent on past performance in a sport, so failures lower it and
successes improve it, based on probability of success.
• Self efficacy is dependent on vicarious experience, the modelling of successful role
models and belief that they can do equally well.
• Self efficacy is dependent on social persuasion, when coaches and others persuade
/give favourable feedback concerning performance is a motivating factor.
• Self efficacy is dependent on perception of physiological state, which the sports
person sees prematch nerves as inability compared to normality.
• Self efficacy is related to perceived control over destiny and performance, so low
control and performance lowers motivation and vice versa.
• Individuals with high self efficacy will try out tasks that are above their level,
persist in tasks but not prepare enough and externally attribute failures.
Describe one theory, other than use to explain
sporting motivation to her friends and evaluate
this theory.
Self efficacy (Bandura, 1977) Evaluation
• Jourden et al (1991) found that self efficacy was raised when success was
attributed to individual effort rather than innate ability.
• Practical application suggests that athletes should be exposed to
successful role models.
• Practical application suggests that praise and encouragement from
coaches should be optimised to improve self efficacy.
• Schunk (1989) found that self efficacy can be improved on measures of
reinforcement, modelling and goal setting in maths tasks, which has
application to sports psychology.
• Vicarious learning is not an adequate explanation as sports requires motor
skills which may not be possible.
• Much of the available data on self efficacy is via self report data, which
may not be reliable.
• Correlational studies do not establish cause and effect between self
efficacy and motivation/performance.
Describe one theory, other than use to explain
sporting motivation to her friends and evaluate
this theory.
Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) Description
• CET explains the influence of external factors on internal motivation to
perform well.
• External factors either promote or undermine intrinsic motivation.
• External motivators, such as prizes, increase intrinsic motivation through
enhanced belief in competence.
• The theory explains that verbal praise over tangible rewards (which are
controlling and lead to the perception of loss of control) increases intrinsic
motivation.
• Athletes use information available from an event to judge competence
and causality (eg, difficulty of race, strength of competition, conditions of
race) and if they did well, based on this information, it increases intrinsic
motivation.
• Athletes assess the controlling factor of the situation, if control was
external to the athlete (eg referee decisions, team tactics) it can have a
negative impact on intrinsic motivation.
Describe one theory, other than use to explain
sporting motivation to her friends and evaluate
this theory.
Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) Evaluaiton
•
The theory explains the variability in intrinsic motivation based on external factors that other motivational
theories neglect to explain.
•
The application of the theory can be used to promote intrinsic motivation through specific external rewards to
promote intrinsic motivation/encouraging autonomy/engaging in activities for intrinsic reasons.
•
Deci and Ryan’s research on puzzle solving showed increased performance when completing the puzzle for
pleasure than reward.
•
Goudas et al (1994) supports the theory by finding that children reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation
when given decision making choices in a PE class compared to those classes that were teacher led decisions.
•
Vallerand and Reid (1984) found that positive feedback over negative feedback improved college students’
performance.
•
Kruglanski et al (1982) studied the motivation of fifth grade children when playing games and found that tangible
rewards decreased intrinsic motivation, furthermore only 2 of the children cited reward as a reason for game
playing one week later.
•
Carton refutes the negative impact of rewards and criticises the research for not controlling factors (such as
temporal continuity and number of rewards given), arguing instead that rewards are legitimate and operant
conditioning theory still applies.
•
Phillips and Lord (1980) found only changes in perceived competence but not intrinsic motivation following
receipt of rewards.
•
The theory does suggest that competition (as a highly controlled activity) will have a negative impact upon
intrinsic motivation, but as most sport is competitive, it is hard to apply this theory well to sporting performance.