Prepared by Siti Rokiah Siwok for UHS 2052
students at UTM, Skudai, Malaysia.
srsiwok@gmail.com
Public speaking
• Public speaking is the presentation of a
speech, usually prepared in advance.
• Public speaking and listening are two
significant forms of communication.
• In public speaking, the speaker is the central
focus of an audience’s attention.
Speech Preparation: overview
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Selecting a speech topic
Determining the General Purpose,
Specific Purpose and Thesis of a Speech
Audience Analysis
Gathering and using information
Organizing and outlining
Delivering the speech
Do start early
Selecting a Speech Topic
• Choose a topic
–
Meaningful to you
–
Important to your audience
–
Familiar and interesting to you
• Think like a listener
Techniques for finding a Topic
• Among the techniques are:
Self-inventory
Brainstorming
Reviewing the current media
Surfing the web
Some guides for evaluating a
Website as a source of information
• Among the questions to ask:
– Who is the author or producer?
– What are the author’s credentials?
– How reliable is the source? What is the authority
or expertise of the author?
– Is the author bias?
– How complete and accurate is the information?
– For whom is the information intended ?
– Is the web page up-to-date?
Some guides for evaluating a
Website as a source of information
– Is the information written in a good manner, using
the basic rules of grammar, spelling and usage?
– Is the language appropriate?
– Is the webmaster contact information provided?
Speech Topic
• How do you assess the appropriateness of a
topic?
• How do you narrow the topic?
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Assessing the appropriateness of a
Topic
• One a possible topic has been identified, the
next step is to determine whether the topic is
appropriate for you, your assignment and your
audience.
Assessing the appropriateness of a
Topic
• You can ask these questions to help you
decide:
1. Does the topic merit the audience’s attention?
2. Will the audience see the connection between
you and the topic, and between the topic and
themselves?
3. Will the topic meet the objectives of the
assignment?
4. Does the audience have sufficient knowledge
and background to understand the topic?
Purpose of the Speech
• General purpose
• Specific purpose?
• Thesis?
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Determining the General Purpose
Overall purpose of speech is to:
 Inform - Convey knowledge
 Persuade - Change listeners’ attitudes,
beliefs, values or behaviours.
 Entertain - Provide enjoyment and
amusement
The Specific Purpose of a Speech
The specific purpose of a speech is a single
phrase that:
• Defines precisely what you intend to
accomplish in the speech
• Identifies general purpose, audience, and
exact topic.
The Specific Purpose of a Speech:
Examples
• To inform the audience of three effects of
video games on children.
• To inform the audience about the three most
dangerous effects of drugs on teens.
• To persuade the audience that capital
punishment does not deter crime.
The Thesis of a Speech
•
A sentence that states specifically what is
going to be discussed in a speech
•
A concise statement of the content including
the main ideas.
Example (1)
Topic: Inexpensive, renewable energy
General Purpose: To inform
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about
wind as an energy source
Thesis: Wind is an inexpensive, easily
accessible, renewable energy source
Example (2)
Topic: Stem cell research
General Purpose: To inform
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about
the development and implications of stem
cells as a way to cure serious disease
Thesis: I will examine promising medical
advances by looking at the history of stem cell
research and the potential benefits of stem
cells on serious diseases.
Audience Analysis
Audience analysis is the collection and
interpretation of data about
characteristics, attitudes, values, and
beliefs of an audience. So that the you
can:
– Know your audience.
– Adapt your speech to your audience
Audience Analysis
• The more the speakers know about the
audience, the better they can adapt their
speeches to them.
• Able to understand audience’s point of view
• The reason why the audience decided to come
to hear the speakers.
• Are they voluntary participants or captive
participants?
Audience analyses
1. Demographic analysis
2. Psychological analysis
3. Size of Audience
4. Physical Setting
5. Knowledge Level
6. Relationship to Speaker
7. Attitudes/Values Related to Topic
8. Attitudes Related to the Situation
Audience Analysis: Demographic
Analysis
• Age
• Occupation
• Gender
• Religion
• Cultural and Ethnic
• Geographic Origins
Background
• Education
• Group Membership
• Other Factors
Audience Analysis : Psychological
Analysis
• It is the collection and interpretation of data about
audience members’ values, attitudes and beliefs.
• Psychological analysis helps to determine how the
audience will react to the speaker, the topic and the
surrounding s in which the speech is presented.
• Psychological analysis helps the speaker to be aware
of what motivates the audience to listen.
Ways to Learn about the Audience
• Observation
• Survey Interviews
• Questionnaires
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Every 10 minutes of speaking time
requires 10 hours of research and
preparation time.
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Some sources of information
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Yourself
Interview
Library
Electronic Sources
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Why are you a good source?
•
Your experiences
•
Your knowledge
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Why is the interview a valuable
tool?
•
Expert opinion
•
Up-to-date
information
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Going to the library
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•
•
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Librarians
Computer-assisted search programs
Electronic databases
Reference department
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Electronic Sources
World Wide Web
•
•
Topic-based searches
Site-based searches
Search Engines:
www.yahoo.com
www.google.com
Metasearch Engines
www.dogpile.com
www.mamma.com
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Surfing the Web
How do you evaluate a Web source?*
1.
2.
3.
4.
Author
Publishing body
Currency
Purpose
*Elizabeth Kirk’s guide for evaluating Web sources
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Surfing the Web
How do you evaluate a Web source?*
1.
2.
3.
4.
Author
Publishing body
Currency
Purpose
*Elizabeth Kirk’s guide for evaluating Web sources
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Suggestions for Doing Research
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State a clear purpose before you search
Begin research early
Use computer searches
Maintain a bibliography of sources
Take notes
Bottom line: Stay organized!
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Clarify and Support
How a speaker clarifies and supports ideas
determines the quality of the speech.
There are essentially two parts to every
speech: a statement and its proof.
-- Aristotle
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Supporting and clarifying ideas
• Audiences generally accept information because of
the credibility of the speaker or because of the
information itself.
• Thus a statement by a well-known person will be
more likely to be accepted by an “ordinary” person.
• However, most audiences will want to hear proofs
before they accept the statements made.
Ways to Support and Clarify Ideas
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•
•
•
Testimony
Examples
Definitions
Statistics
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Testimony
•
•
Testimonies are opinions or conclusions of
witnesses or recognized authorities to add
trustworthiness to a speech.
The speaker’s own experience can be good
testimony.
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Testimony
•
Two essential tests of testimony are:
1.
2.
The person whose words are cited must be
qualified by virtue of skills, training, expertise,
recognition and reputation.
The expert’s opinion is acceptable and believable
to your audience.
Testimony
• For maximum credibility, testimony should
come from objective sources.
• The objectivity and neutrality is especially
important when the topic is controversial.
• Listeners tend to be suspicious of opinions
from a biased or self-interested source.
Examples
An example is a representative incident that
clarifies a point.
Types of examples:
–
–
–
–
Brief examples
Illustrations
Analogies
Restatements
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Brief example
• A brief example is a specific instance to
introduce a topic, drive home a point, or
create a desired impression
Illustration
• An illustration , or extended example is a
narrative, case history or anecdote that is
striking and memorable.
• Illustration often exemplify concepts,
conditions or circumstances or demonstrate
findings.
• Illustration can be :
– Factual
– hypothetical
Illustration
• Factual illustration is a report of something that
exists or actually happened.
• Hypothetical illustration is a report of something that
could happen, given a specific set of circumstances.
• The use of hypothetical illustration can be quite
effective because the speaker can involve the
listeners by creating a vivid picture in the listeners
mind.
Analogies
• An analogy is a comparison of two things that
are similar in certain essential characteristics.
• Analogies explain or prove the unknown by
comparing it to the known.
• There are two kinds of analogies:
1. Figurative analogy
2. Literal analogy
Analogies
• Figurative analogy draws comparison of things in
different categories.
• A literal analogy is a comparison of members of the
same category. Example: two search engines ( google
and goodsearch) or two genres of literature ( fiction
and nonfiction)
• Figurative analogies make ideas vivid and clear,
whereas literal analogies supply evidence to support
points.
Restatements
• A restatement is the expression of the same idea
using different words; it may be in the form of
summary, synonym or rephrasing.
• Restatements do not provide evidence, but powerful
by having a persuasive effect; add clarity, meaning
and dramatic rhythm to a message.
• Martin Luther King Jr. is famous for his “I have a
Dream” speech in which he used restatements.
Definitions
You must define all unfamiliar terms or
concepts.
Types of definitions:
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–
–
Logical definition
Operational definition
Definition by example
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Definitions
• A logical definition usually contains two parts; a
term’s dictionary definition ad the characteristics
that distinguish the term form other items in the
same category.
• An operational definition explains how an object or
concept works, gives the steps that make up a
process, or states how conceptual terms are
measured.
• A definition by example clarifies a term not by
describing it or gives its meaning but mentioning or
showing an example of it.
Statistics
Statistics are numerical data that show
relationships or summarize or interpret many
instances.
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Guidelines for Statistics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sources must be reliable and neutral
Explain statistics you are using
Use statistics sparingly
Round off large numbers when possible
Use visual aids to present statistics if
appropriate and possible
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Overall, a good speech is one
that is well researched!
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The Big Picture:
Speech Making Process
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Consider the audience
Choose/narrow a topic
Research the topic
Select support material
Organize and outline body
Develop an effective introduction and
conclusion
Rehearse and deliver your speech
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How do you organize the body
of your speech?
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Develop the Main Points
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•
Relate main points, specific purpose, and thesis
Present the main points
Be specific
– Use vivid language
– Show relevance
– Create parallel structure
–
•
Limit the number of main points
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Main points: Be specific
• The more specific the main points:
 the less confusion they will create, and
The more meaningful they will be to the audience
• Each main point in a speech should also be
independent of the others and simple to
understand.
Main point: example
• Ineffective main point:
• “Social responsibility is a theory about the societal
responsibilities of companies such as Johnson &
Johnson and individuals like you and me.”
• This example contains three ideas in one point,
making it complicated.
Main point: Example
• Effective main points:
I. Social responsibility is an ethical or ideological
theory about social responsibilities.
II. Social responsibility was demonstrated by such
companies as Johnson & Johnson with the Tylenol
scare in 1982.
III. Social responsibility can also be an individual
making a difference in the community.
In this example, the three main ideas are divided into
three separate points, making them easier to
understand.
Main points : Use vivid language
• The more vivid the main points, the more likely they
are to create interest.
• Main points should be:
• Thought provoking
• Attention-grabbing
• Vivid, but not overblown or exaggerated.
Main points: Show relevance
• Main points that are relevant to the audience
immediate interests encourage greater involvement
and empathy.
• Example : “Air pollution in our city has reached high
levels “ is better than “ Air pollution has reached high
levels”
• Audiences want to know how the speaker’s subject
relates to them, and why they should listen.
Main points: Create parallel
structure
• Main points should be expressed in parallel
structure, that is using similar grammatical
patterns and wording as much as possible.
Examples: Non Parallel Structure
I. Fine arts help us use our whole brain.
II. A balanced life results from participation in
the fine arts.
III. Contributions to society are the result of
participation in the fine arts.
Examples: Parallel Structure
I. The fine arts help us use all areas of our brains.
II. The fine arts help us keep a balanced life.
III. The fine arts help us contribute to society.
Parallel structure of the main points makes material
easier to develop and to remember. Audiences
usually have only one opportunity to hear a speech.
Limiting the number of main points
• The number of main points in your speech will
depend on at least three considerations:
1. The time to deliver the speech
2. The content to be covered in the speech,
especially the amount and complexity of the
supporting materials required for each point.
3. The amount of information the audience can
reasonably comprehend and remember
Order of the main points
• Once the main points identified, the next
action is to decide the order which to present
them.
• Order determines the structure and strategy
of your speech.
• The most effective order depends on the
topic, purpose and audience.
Order the Main Points
Time-Sequence pattern
• Spatial pattern
• Topical pattern
• Problem-Solution pattern
• Cause-Effect pattern
• Motivated sequence pattern
How do you choose the best pattern?
•
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Connecting the main points
• The thoughts in the speech has to systematically
connected.
• The four most common connecting devices speakers
use, either singly or in combination are:
 Transitions
 Signposts
 Internal previews
 Internal summaries
Connecting main points:
Transitions
A transition is a word or phrase used to link
ideas.
Examples :
“ Let me move on to my next point”
“Turning now to ……..”
“Another example is…..”
Connecting main points: signposts
• Signposts are words or phrases or short statements
that indicate to an audience the direction a speaker
will take next.
• Examples :
– Let me first illustrate
– My second point is
– As I look in my chart
– Next…
– Finally…
Connecting main points: signposts
• Questions can also be used signposts.
Examples:
– How powerful is language?
– What happens next?
• Such questions draw the audience’s attention
to the forthcoming answer.
Connecting main points: Internal
previews and Internal summaries
• Internal previews are short statements that give in
advance warning, or preview of the point (s) to be
covered.
• Internal summaries are short review statements
given at the end of a main point.
How do you support the main points?
Support materials
must be relevant
and logically
organized.
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Organizing the Introduction of Your
Speech
• Experience speakers often develop the
introductions after, not before, they finish the
body of the speech.
• An introduction include opening statements that
set the state and serves two important functions,
namely : (1) motivating the audience to listen
and, (2) orienting them to the subject.
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Organizing the Introduction of
Your Speech
• The introduction should be based on the
information gathered in the audience analysis.
• Thus the introduction should have three goals, to:
1. Orient the audience to the topic.
2. Motivate the audience to listen.
3. Forecast the main points.
Orienting Your Audience
to the Topic
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Refer to the subject or occasion
Use personal references or narratives
Ask rhetorical questions
Present a startling statement
Use humor
Use quotations
State your specific
purpose
and thesis
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Motivate the Audience
to Listen
Make your topic relevant
• Establish credibility
•
Credibility is a speaker’s believability,
based on the audience’s evaluation of
the speaker’s competence, experience,
character and charisma .
( Sieller and Beall, 2011, page 226
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Credibility
• Credibility is the most valuable tool for a persuasive
speaker.
• Credibility is the “believability” that the audience holds
towards you.
• The audience is the judge to credibility, but there is a lot
that the speaker can do to influence the audience
opinion.
• Credibility includes competence, character and charisma.
• The key is to establish yourself from the very beginning
of the speech as a person worth listening to.
Credibility: competence
• Competence will be judged by the amount of
knowledge, the degree of involvement and the
extent of experience.
• The more expertise shown in your area, the more
likely the audience will accept what is being said.
• Ways to demonstrate expertise:
– Demonstrate involvement
– Relate experience
– Cite research
Credibility: character
• Audience judge the speaker’s character based
on their perceptions of:
 Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is reliability and dependability.
Past experience play a role too.
 Ethics.
Can be achieved by citing sources and citing
accurately, not distorting or alter information or
facts and show respect for the audience.
Credibility: ethics
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Respect your audience.
Some jokes but not too much.
Avoid conflict with the audience.
Moderate in all things
Don’t call names or talk bad about anybody.
If sensitive issues have to be said, say them in
the best manner, such as using analogy.
Credibility: charisma
• Charisma is the appeal that the audience
perceives.
• Some characteristics of charismatic speakers
are: genuinely interested in the audience,
energetic and enthusiastic, attractive and
likeable.
• Charismatic speakers are able to engage the
audience.
Forecast the Main Points
Give listeners a
road map for
your speech.
The first 15 seconds are critical to audience
involvement!
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Conclusion of Your Speech
•
Show that you are finishing the speech
•
Make your thesis clear
•
Review the main points
•
End with a memorable thought
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Conclusion of Your Speech
• The conclusion should focus on the specific
purpose of your speech and bring the most
important points together in a condensed and
uniform way.
• The conclusion also should relate to the
introduction, helping the audience make
connections between various parts and points
of the message.
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Outlining your speech
• Outlining is one of the most difficult steps in a
speech preparation.
• Outlining involves arranging the entire contents of a
speech in logical sequence and writing that
sequence in a standardized form.
• The outline is often referred to as the blueprint or
skeleton of a speech.
Outlining your speech
• Outlining and organizing are similar terms.
• Both organizing and outlining involve arranging
information to form a meaningful sequence, but
outlining is a more rigorous written process.
• Outlining is more detailed than organizing and helps :
– to unify and clarify thinking,
– makes relationships clear,
– Provide the proper balance and emphasis for each point as
it relates to the specific purpose of a speech ( or written
paper),
– To ensure that information is accurate and relevant.
Outlining your speech
• In the process of outlining the speech, you will
gain an overview of your entire presentation,
which help you gauge the amount of support
you have for each of your main points, as well
as identify any points that need further
development.
• The process of outlining usually requires three
steps….
Principles in Outlining
• There are three principles in outlining:
1. Subordination
2. Coordination
3. Parallelism
Principles in outlining :
subordination
• Subordination identifies the hierarchy of
ideas.
• The most important ideas are the main points
and are supported by subpoints ( that is, they
are subordinate to the main points)
Principles in outlining
:coordination
• Coordination suggests that ideas with the
same level of importance use the same kind
of numbers ( Roman and Arabic ) and letters
(capitalized and noncapitalized) to provide a
visualization of relationships.
Principles in outlining : parallelism
• Parallelism is the term for making all ideas,
main points, subpoints and sub-subpoints use
similar grammatical form and language
patterns.
• The language used should also be parallel.
Steps in Outlining Your Speech
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•
•
Start with a preliminary outline
Expand to a full-sentence outline
Condense to a presentational (key-word)
outline
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Example of an outlining format
Using Presentational Note Cards
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Use only a few note cards
Number the note cards
Write on only one side
Use abbreviations
Use an outline format
Write out introduction and conclusion
List only main points and subpoints
Write out citations, statistics, and quotations
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Speech anxiety
• Fear of public speaking (speech anxiety ) is common :
1. Fear of not having anything worthwhile to say
2. Fear of speaking in front of others
Qualities of Effective Speakers
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•
•
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Ethics
Knowledge
Preparation
Self-Confidence
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Ethics: Avoiding Plagiarism
• Use more than one source for speech
• Use a variety of sources
• Avoid using language identical to original
author
• Cite sources prior to quoting a source
• Always identify your sources
• Give credit to originator of ideas
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Managing Speech Anxiety
• What is speech anxiety?
• What is communication
apprehension?
• What are the symptoms?
• What causes speech anxiety?
• How does culture affect
speech anxiety?
• How is speech anxiety
controlled?
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Symptoms of Speech Anxiety
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Vocal changes
Fluency problems
Dryness in mouth and throat
Tense facial expressions
Random gestures
Body movements
Nonvisible symptoms
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What Causes Speech Anxiety?
FEAR!!!!
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Fear of physical unattractiveness
Fear of social inadequacy
Fear of criticism
Fear of the unknown
Fear of speech anxiety
Conflicting emotions
Excitement from anticipation
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Treating Speech Anxiety
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Select a topic you enjoy and know.
Be prepared and know your audience.
Be confident.
Think positively.
Practice, practice, practice.
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Additional Tips for Controlling Speech
Anxiety
• Talk with instructor for additional help.
• Don’t give up!
• Practice relaxation techniques - systematic
desensitization.
• Realize that everyone feels this way.
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How Do You Deliver
a Winning Speech?
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Methods of Delivery
Choose an appropriate method:
• Impromptu Delivery
• Manuscript Delivery
• Memorized Delivery
• Extemporaneous Delivery
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How do vocal and physical
aspects affect delivery?
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Vocal Aspects
• Vocal quality
• Intelligibility
• Vocal variety
– Rate
– Force
– Pitch
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Physical Aspects
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Personal appearance
Body movement
Gestures
Facial expressions
Eye contact
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Some Distracting Speaker
Behaviors
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rapid speech
monotone
mumbling
awkward pauses
hands in pockets
playing with hair
looking at floor or
ceiling
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tense, rigid
sloppy posture
swaying
dancing
leaning on podium
weight shifts
crossing legs
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Presentational Aids
Materials and equipment that speakers may
use to enhance the speech’s content as well as
their delivery
A picture is worth a thousand words…
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Why use presentational aids?
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Save time
Gain attention and hold interest
Clarify and support main points
Reinforce or emphasize main points
Improve retention of information
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Audience Memory and the
Impact of Visual Aids
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Effective presentational aids
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Presentational aids should:
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Serve a need
Be planned and adapted
Not dominate the speaker
Look professionally prepared
Be practical - easy to prepare, use, and
transport
• Be documented if they are not original
• Contain only one idea
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Kinds of Presentational Aids
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Real objects
Models
Photographs and prints
Drawings, sketches, and diagrams
Tables and graphs
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Tips when using Presentational
Aids
• Display visuals only while you are using them
• Display them long enough for everyone to absorb
the information
• Make them neat, simple, large, bright, and
readable
• Do not talk to your displayed objects
• Do not stand in front of your displayed objects
• Practice using your presentational aids
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Methods of Presentation
• Posters
• Projected
Visuals
• Handouts
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Computer-Generated
Presentational Aids
• Don’t overdo it!
• Use appropriate font size – 40 point for a regular
classroom.
• Don’t put too much on a slide.
• Use the visual to enhance your presentation.
• Practice using it in the room where you will be
presenting.
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Thinking about PowerPoint
• Color
• Type and Size of Font
• Use of Graphics and Pictures
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Presenting your speech
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Use of appropriate language.
Use appropriate intonation.
Appropriate non-verbal behaviour.
Manage emotion and anxiety.
Observe ethics.
Keep up your credibility.
Language
Effective and appropriate use of language
includes:
• Using your own style.
• Congruence between the language and the
style used.
• Use active sentences.
• Use simple language.
Q&A
• Questions can be asked by the audience during the
speech or after the speech.
• It is also possible that the speaker asks questions.
S/he can answer them or let the audience answerdepends on the purpose of the question.
• Unless they are meant to be provocative, it is ethical
to answer all questions asked by the audience.
Responses to questions
• Questions and answer sessions can be opportunities
for the speaker to reinforce important points.
• Answers to the questions can increase the speaker’s
credibility, to add information or to highlight some
points which have been missed during the
presentation
• Watch out, and be ready for ‘killer questions”.
Responses to questions
• Let not questions control the whole presentation.
• Avoid irrelevant issues or issues which are too
technical, which quite likely to bore the audience.
• Keep to your time given.
Caution
• There are lots more.
• Please go on reading and learning.
Main References
• Seiler, W. J and Beall, M. L ( 2008, 2011).
Communication. Making Connections ( 7th and
8th ed). Boston: Pearson