An Introduction to Human Geography
The Cultural Landscape, 8e
James M. Rubenstein
Chapter 8
Political
Geography
PPT by Abe Goldman
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United Nations Members (list p. 250)
UN began with 51 members in 1945.
As of Sept. 2011, there are 193 members, including
South Sudan, the newest.
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Kosovo could be the next new member state.
K-1: Problems in Defining States & Develop. of
State Concept
A State (country):
1. area w/ organized polit. unit
2. ruled by establ. gov’t.
3. has defined territory
4. handles internal & foreign affairs/issues
5. defined population
6. has sovereignty (independ. from other states;
self-rule)
-NOT “state” like USA’s states (are really more like
provinces)
-only large land mass on world that is NOT part of a
state is Antarctica….but parts are claimed (some
over-lapping) (S-4)
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Antarctica:
National
Claims
Antarctica
is the only
large
landmass
that is not
part of a
state,
but several
countries
claim
portions
of it.
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Defining states:
--Korea: 1 or 2 states? controlled by Japan till 1945
(WWII) then split by US & Soviets (38th N. parallel)
(1nat./2 states)
--’50: N. invaded S.; Korean War…both want
unification
China/Taiwan: 1 or 2? 1940’s: Comm. Rebel & drive
Nationalists to Taiwan…who said were still “real”
gov’t of China…comm. said they were, but both
said all 1 China
-1999 Taiwan said is separate state…Com-Chi still no
-US had supported Nationalists, but in ’71 said
recogn. Com-Chi as “real” gov’t in the UN (R. Nixon)
--Western Sahara is same type situation
# 5) REVIEW list on p. 250 of 189 “sovereign states of
UN”
Use atlas: Relative location OR absolute? Tell which5 it is
Varying Sizes: Russia = lrgst, 17.1 mill. Sq km/6.6 mil sq mi
Microstates: smallest Monaco = 1.5 sq km/.6 sq mi list: 251
Development of State Concept: ancient vs. modern idea:
Ancient: idea of states began in Mid-East in Fertile Cresc.
-1st states = city-states: town + surrounding countryside
= for gov’t & defense (like GWD city + GWD county)
-Then 1 gains power, takes over another…then = empire
EX: Succession of emp. in Mesopotamia.: Sumarians,
Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians
-then Egyptian Empire in S. area (3000 BCE- 4th cent. BCE)
at far W. end of Fertile Crescent, along the Nile River (for
almost 2500 yrs!) 5000 yrs ago
Early European states: height of political unity (in ancient
world) = Roman Empire
Included Europe: from Spain to Iran & Egypt to England
-38 provinces, all used Rom. law, giving concept of gov’t.
-fell in 5th (400’s) CE from attacks from “barbarians” &
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also from internal problems/disputes
Fertile Crescent:
Site of early city-states & a succession of ancient empires
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(Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylonia, etc.) .
In Europe former Rome-controlled areas
began to form under dukes, earls, barons,
etc.; gained strength & about 1100, began
to form larger areas that became Fr., Engl.,
& Spain
-later led to idea of nation-states, (like
Denmark)
--Germ. & Ital. stayed in pieces & did not form
unified country until 19th century…
Colonies: area legally tied to another sov.
state; not independence
Colonialism: technically is taking over
uninhabited or
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sparsely inhabited lands
European colonialism:
Was based on 3 main reasons (God, gold, glory):
1) Missionaries were used to promote
Christianity & give justification for taking over
(p. 252) (God)
2) Gain resources to help European “mother”
country (gold)
3) # colonies related to how powerful you were
(glory)
-began in 1400’s in W. Hemisphere & then later in
Afr. & Asia
“Imperialism”, or empire building: taking over
widely inhabited land by another country
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After 1500’s UK put together largest empire:
QUOTE: “Sun never sets on British Empire.” What
does this mean?
With breakaway of USA, began to lose places…
though they took others in Africa & Asia after USA
formed
-Eur. had large areas of colonies there, but also
islands
Difference betwn. Fr. & Brit. Way of controlling
colonies:
-Fr. tried to make colonials = French, but Brits
allowed them to keep more diversity…their old ways
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End of Euro. Imperialism:
African & Asian colonies broke away after
WWII…began in late 1940’s, lots during 1950’s
thru 60’s
When U.N. established in 1948, then were only
15 African/Asian countries…now 105 (2000)
Most colonies today = islands in Pacific or
Caribbean
Most populous colony today = Puerto Rico
(USA)
Least populous: Pitcairn Isl., S. Pacific. The
pop. there came from British ship The
Bounty’s mutineers who settled (Mutiny on
the Bounty)
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Colonial Possessions 1914: By the outbreak of WWI,
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European states held colonies thru the world, espec.
in Africa & in much of Asia.
Colonial Possessions, 2003 (p. 254-5 = 2000)
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Most remaining colonies are small islands in Pacific or Caribbean
K-2 Why boundaries Cause problems:
Boundaries: invisible line marking extent of state
territory
Used to be that almost all boundaries were frontiers,
with few if any inhabitants, but now most all land
is claimed & defined.
Only Antarctica & parts of the Arabian Peninsula
are now true frontiers
2 ways to define (determine) boundaries:
1) types of Physical features (3 of these):
water (rivers + seas)
deserts
mountains
2) Cultural features (4 types) to determine:
*language *religion *ethnicities
& *geometric (often latitude & longitude lines)
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Both physical & cultural can = conflict w/ neighbors
After WWI (1919), Treaty of Versailles used “language”
as the #1 way to determine boundaries of new states &
to adjust borders of existing states:
US/Mex:
Uses
which
aspects
to
determine
border?
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5 basic SHAPES of states:
Compact
prorupted
elongated
fragmented
perforated
1. Compact: efficient; ideal = shaped like circle…or close
-good for small 1’s b/c communication, esp. if capital in
center
2. Prorupted: most compact + large projecting extens. (often
for water)
--also can do to avoid borders (Afgh. w/ Russia?)
3. Elongated: isolation? EX: Chile; problems w/ communic.
--cap. usually at center, so end, not easily accessible to it
4. Fragmented: broken up by water, other states, etc
--EX: Indonesia; E/W Pakistan?
-problems = communication, integration of pop.; also
sometimes "pieces" didn't come in voluntarily
-EX: E. Timor…got indep.('75); Indon. invades; still fight
5. Perforated: EX: S. Afr.: Lesotho in middle, surrounded by
S. Afr….depends on SA for imports/exports by ship
Next slide: ID each of the shapes for the states shown 16
Chile, Poland, Indonesia, S. Africa: Can it be 2+?
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Italy, France, Thailand, Japan (See the dominant shape)
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Landlocked: again,
Lesotho; (also Uruguay)
Africa has most of any
continent w/ 14/54
landlocked
These have no seaports
-Comes from colonial
era…had others on
coast could ship to by
rail
Now it’s problem for the
local econ.
...When landlocked AND
have hostile ethnic
group(s) in betw. sea &
borders = Major
problem for
international trade
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African
States
Southern,
central, &
eastern
Africa
include
states
that are
compact,
elongated,
prorupted,
fragmented
&
perforated.
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India:
The Tin
Bigha
Corridor
fragmented 2
sections
of the country
of
Bangladesh.
When it was
leased to
Bangladesh,
a section of
India was
fragmented.
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Frontiers
in the
Arabian
Peninsula:
Several
states in
the Arabian
Peninsula
are
separated
by frontiers
rather than
precise
boundaries.
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Aozou Strip: A Geometric Boundary
The straight boundary between Libya & Chad was drawn by
European powers, & the Aozou Strip is the subject of
controversy between the 2 countries.
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WHY BOUNDARIES CAUSE PROBLEMS (p. 261)
State w/ many nationalities: (262) Cyprus: 2
nationalities
After WWI, divided by lang. into Greek/Turk areas
more Gks. there, but closer to Turkey; then Britain
gained it
Gave indep. In 1960; Gks/Tur shared govt…til ’74
some Gks tried to take it for Greece, then Turkey
invaded to protect from Turks
Groups used to associate w/ each other & mingle,
but now isolated at ends, w/ buffer in middle w/ UN
soldiers
(Gk. Cypriots & Turkish Cypriots)
Turks declared indep., but no one recognizes this
except them
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Division of Cyprus
Fig. 8-10:
Cyprus has been divided into Green & Turkish portions since251974.
Former USSR: (262) Largest multi-national state:
members now = 15 new indep. states, in 5 groups
former
1- Baltic States (3-on Baltic Sea): Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
2-European (3): Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine (in Ukr. some
problems w/ Crimean Peninsula’s pop.)
3-Central Asian (5): Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, & Uzbekistan
4-Caucasus (Cauc. Mtns., Eurasian border--3): Azerbaijan,
Armenia, & Georgia
-Azeris: pop. = 90% of Azerb.…but 6 mill. live in Iran
-Armenia = Christian enclave; historically slaughtered by
Muslim Turks; after USSR, became Armenia again
--90% of country = Armenians; fight w/ Azeris over
border
lands in which both nationalities exist--Georgia: more
diverse than Azer. & Arme. = problems
5-Russia: now largest multi-natl. state; recognize 39 natls.
-1 of these is Chechnya …these = Sunni Muslims w/
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distinct culture; Russ. says if it goes, others will also
Notes on enclave & exclave (see next slide): These are
not in your book…but have appeared on AP’s…
1) enclave: an area surrounded by an area that
does not rule (control, ID w/ ) it.
EX’s: Vatican City; Lesotho; Gambia (actually
a penne-enclave b/c it has a small outlet to the
sea):
2) exclaves: parts of a national territory
separated from the main body of the country
EX’s: Alaska; Kaliningrad (part of Russia but on
Baltic Sea); former E. Pakistan, separated from
W. Pakistan
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--is a kind of fragmentation
Exclaves:
*Russia’s Kalingrad
on Baltic
*Old E & W Pakistan
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Enclaves
(Gambia = penne [quill
feather] enclave –
elongated & open to sea)
Lesotho in S. Afr.
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Eastern Europe “satellites” (controlled by USSR) &
Former USSR (another needed term!!!)
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KNOW these!!
Nation:
Scotland
Tibet
Kurdistan
Basque
Catalonia
Kashmir
N. Ireland
(aka Ulster)
Palestine
Western Sahara
Taiwan
Greenland
Sicily
Maori
Puerto Rico
Hawaii
Stateless Nations:
Part of which state?
Region/Location
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Some have 1 nationality in more than 1 state: 266
Kurds: Sunni Muslims; in 1920’s became nationstate
-now 25 mill. split among 6 countries: Turkey (15), Iran
(5), Iraq (4), & less in Azerbai. Armenia, & Syria
--Kurds are a “stateless nation”
--Turks don’t allow their lang. or culture; other prob.
also
Pan-Arab Nation: 1 nation, many states; lang. & relig.
same for about 24 countries: Islam & Arabic
-main reason split up is Euro. colonialism & Ottoman
rule
--except for Israel, are well-united, but wealth not
equal b/c some have oil (petroleum), others don’t
-p. 267: What happened from 1980-1991 that
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ended unity?
Kurdish nation …
& the “Pan-Arab”
nation
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Kurdish distribution:
Label ALL & indicate areas by color
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Unitary vs. Federal: Internal organization of states
Unitary state: power in hands of 1 central govt.
-unitary usually best for country w/ single nationality,
like Europeans
-but many w/ multi-national use unitary to force 1
nation’s culture, lang., etc., onto another
EX: USSR & Chinese Comm., to promote communist
ideas
Also--several African nations w/ many divided
ethnicities & 1 dominates
Characteristics that work for Unitary system:
--smaller size, good central or accessible location for
capital (for good communication);
--nation-states w/ few cultural differences, strong
national unity (like many of European states)
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Federal system:
Gov’t in which a written constitution divides the powers
of gov’t between a central (national) gov’t & several
regional governments, usually called states or provinces.
--local units of govt. are stronger than in unitary system
–works well for larger countries that may have long
distance for some to capital (US, Can., India)
Also when have several nationalities, local control helps
keep peace with the less influential grps.
EX: Even though small, Belgium is Fed. b/c of its 2
nationalities (??)
--many now moving toward federal from unitary, like
France & Poland
-France’s change is going fine, but E. Europeans, like
Poland, tend to have more trouble w/ changes
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Unitary vs. Federal states
(countries)
Blue = Unitary
Green = Federal
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Heartland vs. Rimland Theory of Geopolitics:

Basically stated:
- Whoever rules Eastern Europe commands the
heartland.
- Whoever rules the heartland commands the World
Island (Eurasia and Africa)
- Whoever rules the World Island commands the World.
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Heartland (H. MacKinder) vs. Rimland (N. Spykman) Theory of
Geopolitics:
1904, Halford Mackinder published a theory RE: political strength in
Eurasia…analyzed the strengths & weaknesses of the regions
Concluded the Russian Core & areas east of the core had potential to
become a world power.
1919: revised his theory to include E. Europe & the theory became
known as Mackinder's Heartland Theory.
Basically stated:
- Who rules East Europe commands the heartland.
- Who rules heartland commands the World Island (Eurasia & Africa)
- Who rules the World Island commands the World.
1942, Nicholas Spykman: countered Mackinder's Heartland Theory.
Spykman stated that Eurasia's Rimland, the coastal areas or buffer
zone, is the key to controlling the World Island, not the heartland.
Spykman's book, "America's Strategy in World Politics" was published
during World War II dealt w/ political & military strength of the USA at
that time.
Today we look at the Rimland in terms of its economic strength &
potential, but the book dealt w/ primarily military intervention,
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control & conquest of the Old World.
ODD shapes:
Gerrymandering:
FL & GA
Gerrymandering:
designing borders
to maximize political
influence
State legislature
boundaries
were drawn
to maximize
the number of
legislators for
Republicans in
Florida &
Democrats in
Georgia.
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K-3: Why States Cooperate w/ each other States
The UN (p. 274): began '45 w/ 49…now has 192 (191);
job = peace
-- Taiwan only populous w/o membership…Taiwan
pulled out when China in in 1971
-recently tried to join as Taiwan or Repub. of Ch., but
Commun. China (People’s Rep. of Ch.)
--Switzerland finally joined 2002…
--all countries supposed to contribute military support
UN had rapid growth 3 times:
1) '55 (16): many former German controlled Euro. nations
2) '60: (17): most former Euro. colonies
3) -'90-93 (26): most former Comm. controlled countries
US tried to start League of Nations (Wilson, 1919) after
WWI, but US would not join
--then Germany, Italy, Sov. Union, & Japan pulled out in
'30's, & League fell apart
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UN Security Council: 5 permanent members:
USA USSR (now Russia) France China
UK
These 5 have veto power & often used to keep UN
out of situations they were in
EX: South & North Korea in ‘50's:
Soviets (USSR) walked out
Often UN tries to keep control over warring ethnic
groups in places like Somalia, Bosnia
Tried to be neutral in Bosnia, but couldn't b/c of
Serbs’ (Christian & stronger) treatment of Muslims’
weaker group
15 total: 5 permanent members +
2 other sets of 5, in 2 yr. terms
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
43
Regional military organ. (p. 270):
B4 Cold War in '40's-70's, were always more than 2
Superpowers …but after WW II, US & USSR came
out as only 2 b/c others were hit hard economically
These 2 superpowers joined military alliances to keep
balance of power
…so you were
either "for" US or
for USSR (p. 270)
Others became
allies or satellites,
& could cause
trouble
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Military cooperation in Euro:
Most of Europe joined NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) after WWII
--military coop betwn. 16 democratic states: US, Canada, &
14 Europ (Fr. & Sp. members but contrib. no troops)
45
Warsaw Pact: 1955, Communist 7 member co-op group
-’68 Czech. leader wanted reforms; Warsaw Pact invaded
-NATO was to keep USSR’s Warsaw P. straight & vice-versa
When USSR busted, less need…Warsaw broke up
NATO troops
were
reduced
Some former
Warsaw Pact
countries
join NATO
by 1997
46
OAS:
35 states in
W. Hemisphere:
Cuba was a
member, but
was thrown out
in 1962 b/c of
Castro
47
The European Union & NATO
Fig. 8-12: NATO and the European Union have expanded and accepted new 48
members as the Warsaw Pact and COMECON have disintegrated.
European
Boundary
Changes
20th century
boundary
changes in
Europe, 1914
to 2003.
Germany’s
boundaries
changed
after each
world war &
the collapse
of the USSR.
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Economic Coop (274).:
EU (?): work toward econ. coop w/ Eur countries
(1958)
At 1st = Eur Econ Community, Common Mkt., &
Eur. Commun. began w/ Belgium, Fr., W.Germ.,
Italy, Luxem., & Nether.; ’73 more…’81 more;
’86, ’95
3 EU capital cities:
Strasbourg, Fr; Brussels, Belg.; Luxembourg
Now have a European Parlia.; at 1st just helped
w/ problems
--Now have more free trade among nations
--Use “Euro” as money in 11 countries
COMECON (?): b4 end of USSR, communist
countries had COMECON which promoted
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trade among those countries
Shatter belt
(extra needed term! Not in yr bk!)
Region caught between stronger colliding external
cultural-political forces, under persistent stress, &
often fragmented by aggressive rivals."
Area hit often with outside conflicts and stresses
It has also played the role of a cold war buffer zone.
EX: Southeast Asia: borders the "giants" of India and
China. One country of the realm, Myanmar, borders
both. To the east, the island State of Indonesia
controls the western half of the island of New Guinea,
yet the whole island is included in the pacific realm.
Another EX: Eastern Europe: often invaded, cultural
differences
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Germany & Europe:
German domination of W. Eur?
--now the most powerful nation in European
economy
--has pushed for a stronger, more united Eur.
This has led many in Eur. to fear Ger. may again
“rise” as it did before WW I & WWII
Ger. was not “state” until 1871
-Frederick the Great & von Bismarck united many
of the German speaking people into the German
Empire (lasted less than 50 yrs…end of WWI 1919)
-WWII: took “German speaking”…or close…
countries of Austria, Poland, Czech., to make true
German. nation-state
After WWII, split Ger into W & E; split Berlin to 4
parts
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New
European
Union
Nations:
Czech
Republic,
Estonia,
Hungary,
Latvia,
Lithuania,
Malta,
Poland,
Slovakia &
Slovenia
join the
Schengen
area.
53
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Trading blocs: regional groups that give preferential
treatment to those w/in their bloc.
3 most important:
1) Western Hemisphere (NAFTA & now CAFTA?)
NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement:
-Mexico, USA, + Canada: was Can. + US,
then added Mex. & became NAFTA
CAFTA: Central Amer. Free Trade Agreement
2) Western Eur.: European Union
3) East Asia: Japan leads; China, S. Korea, some
w/ N. Korea
OPEC: ? (not really regional) --economic organization
to protect oil producers
Oil embargo of 1973-74 led to gas rationing & long
55
lines in USA
US
adjusts to
Oil
Embargo
from
OPEC:
Could
take hrs.
to get
5 – 10
gallons!
56
K-4: Terrorism: Individuals & Organizations
States believed to support terrorism:
Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran…& now
Pakistan
Terrorism: systematic use of violence by a
group to intimidate a population or coerce
(force) a gov’t. into granting its demands
-1st used in French Revolution: Reign of Terror
(1793-4)
-most times it refers to groups outside of
gov’t.’s
--differs from assassination……
-terrorism is aimed at ordinary people
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--but assn. aimed at leaders, etc.
Terror vs. retaliation: Which is it?
Us vs. them???
Hard to tell at times
EX: w/ Palestinians & Jews gets very
difficult…Is it terrorism…or a response to a
wartime attack?
Does it depend on your POV?
What other groups do they mention?
Attacks on USA:
Several in 1990’s:
1 on WTC, 1 on USS Cole, 2 attacks on U.S.
African embassies, but most Americans
ignored these…was hard to get U.S. ppl
involved
58
Amer. Terrorists: OKC bombing, 1995: T.
McVeigh said was retaliation against US
gov’t. attacks on Branch Davidians in Waco,
TX, in ‘93
Sept. 11, 2001: WTC destroyed; Pentagon
hit also
-Al Qaeda: did most of the 1990’s US attacks
-bin Laden: son of Yemen billionaire ($ made
in Saudi Arabia); spent his inheritance
building Al Qaeda (“the base”)
-1st fought against USSR in Afghanistan b/c of
Soviet hostility to religions …his 1st jihad
(holy war)
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1996: USA supported Saudi Arabia & Israel, so
called for jihad against US…
-these are “outlaw” Islamic groups, actions NOT
condoned by MOST Muslims, even if they disagree
w/ many USA’s policies
State sponsored terrorism:
3 increasing levels of involvement:
1) providing sanctuary for terrorists wanted by
other countries
2) supplying weapons, $$, & intelligence to terrorists
3) planning attacks using terrorists
US Response to 9/11: US accused Afghanistan, Iraq,
& Iran w/ at least 1 of the 3 levels of support for
terrorism
--attacked Afghan. in 2001 & Iraq in 2003
60
Add Pakistan today?
Libya: 1980’s: al-Qaddafi (Kaddafi) paid for executions
of opponents exiled in Europe (Muamar Quadafi)
1981: Libyan plane shot at US plane b/c said was over
Libyan airspace; US said international .. US shot down
In Lebanon: Libyan bombers blew up Berlin nightclub
used by US soldiers …so US bombed 2 Libyan cities
1988: Pan-Am Flight 103 , over Lockerbie, Scotland,
downed by Libyan agents
Afghanistan: 1973: Afghan king overthrown by military
1978…replaced by gov’t friendly to Soviets
1979, USSR sent in troops b/c of “holy warriors”…USSR
out in 1989
1992, Taliban took over; Taliban-led Afgh. was attacked
09/11/2001: US hit Taliban b/c it sheltered bin Laden &
Al-Qaeda …then ethnic grps fought for control
-Taliban is again growing in power w/ Pakistan support
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SW Asian Ethnic Grps.:
Ethnic boundaries don’t match country boundaries...
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especially in Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, & Pakistan.
Iraq: 1st trouble w/ Hussein: 1991 Persian Gulf War b/c he
invaded Kuwait… but he stayed til 2003
2003 US attacked in 2003 remove Saddam, saying had
WMD’s… --supported by UK & a few others
Difference 1991 & 2003: most of UN supported US in ’91, but
not in 2003 US attacked “unilaterally”
All knew Saddam was a tyrant, but said this didn’t justify
attacks to them …..most didn’t think WMD’s still in Iraq,
Iraq & al-Qaeda ties? NO--Ba’athists & a-Q have different
views on most things, so most UN didn’t see a close tie
there
Iran: 1979: Iran’s people forced the pro-US Shah out
Militants took over US embassy & held them hostage for 444
days…US was very hostile toward Iran
Iraq & Iran began fighting each other in ’80 & ’81 over a
waterway that flowed into the Persian Gulf…1.5 mill. died
US lately has begun saying Iran is urging Shi’ites in Iraq63to
take over & establish power…also nuclear (WMD’s) issue
Other countries US has accused of terrorism or aiding terrorism:
Yemen: base for al-Qaeda cells & sheltered terrorists who
attacked USS Cole
Sudan: once sheltered bin Laden & other militants
Syria: support for Iranian & Libyan terrorists
North Korea: developing nuclear weapons
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World Trade Center
Ikonos satellite images of the World Trade Center June 30, 2000, before the attack.
65
Sept. 11 attacks…
66
World Trade Center Site 9/15/2001
67
Ikonos satellite images of the World Trade Center Sept. 15, 2001, after the attack.
Look at this map—what is the “pink” area
showing?
68
Caucasus Region
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