Dilemmas of Gender
and Diversity
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Orientation
 The diversity challenge - consequences for
leadership of treatment of gender
 More women in leadership positions, but not senior
organizational positions. Why?
 Older maps had leadership in terms of masculine
attributes and are being increasingly challenged.
(e.g. nature of gender differences for collaborative
and nurturing behaviours).
 The shift raises dilemmas of tokenism and
discrimination (‘e.g. glass ceilings’)
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Platforms of Understanding
 Theory of female advantage and diversity
dilemmas
 Vecchio - dominant theories of male supremacy
replaced with mirror-image female theories
 Eagly & Carli – female styles offer performance
advantages over male ones
 Nkomo & Cox – perspectives of discrimination and
diversity as a neutral characteristic of social
groups.
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Vecchio - Leadership & Gender Differences
 Male leadership advantage being replaced by a
symmetrical assumptions of female advantage
 Leaders categorized as either feminine or masculine
with distinct gender determined styles
 Male styles previously concerned with tasks and
female ones with concern for people
 Veccio maps gender is socially determined. A
Leader’s behaviours are not predicted by feminine or
masculine style dimensions,
 Each leaders displays behaviours associated with
male and female characteristics
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Eagly & Carli: Female Leadership Advantage Theory
 Doubt cast on Vecchio’s rejection of female leader
advantage
 Evidence of consistent differences between men
and women on measures of transformational
leadership
 Transactional styles of leadership show no genderbased differences
 The link between female leadership practices and
effective performance stronger than that for male
leadership practices
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Context of Prejudice
 Eagly & Carli argue that there is wide ranging prejudice towards
female leaders
 Contributes to glass-ceiling effects and continuing discrimination
against women in top positions
 Potential advantage of women leaders with transformational
styles for supporting change
 Aspirin Effect: term coined for studies prompting immediate
action based on a small but significant overall effect. The
measured differences between male and female leaders are
small, but enough to warrant (Aspirin effect) actions to eliminate
glass ceiling effects.
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Nkomo & Cox’s Review of Diversity
 Gender studies part of wider issues of inequality and
diversity
 Diversity poses theoretical and practical dilemmas
 Narrow characterisations of diversity emphasize
discrimination as consequence of diversity (Race,
ethnicity and gender are ‘the big three’)
 Broader views (maps) draw on theories of social
identity and evolutionary health, and develop a case
for celebrating diversity
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Diversity & Identity
 Diversity Map of Nkomo & Cox helps explore
nature of identity
 Theories of diversity deal with consequences
of identity

Social identity theory

Organizational demography

Ethnographic studies

Race / gender studies
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Remapping Diversity
 Celebrate diversity and relevance for
enhancing innovation
 Restrictive nature of stereotyping arises
from ‘either-or’ thinking (‘us and them’)
 Essentialist maps lead to difficulties in
challenging such polarised beliefs
 Interpretive perspectives make it easier to
challenge and transcend stereotyping
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Margaret Thatcher
Leadership Style
o
o
o
o
Physical appearance (symbolic significance)
‘Tougher than you’ approach anything but feminine
Brutal negotiator – no concessions
Autocratic – demonstrate superiority / humiliate
Reputation
o
o
o
Charismatic
Courageous (seized leadership opportunities
Self-belief
Downfall
o
o
Charismatic ‘tipping point’ (hero to zero)
Non-consensual style had generated conditions for overthrow
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Oriental Glass Ceiling
 Cultural factors still exclude women from
leadership positions worldwide
 Defended by traditionalist groupings
 Dilemmas of gender
+
+
Work attitudes reinforced by cultural beliefs
Too masculine / not masculine enough
 Successful Women
+
Diligent and a strong will to succeed
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Diversity leadership
 Management of organizational diversity becoming
more accepted or at least ‘on the agenda’
 Entry barriers for restricted groups to leader positions
being relaxed (elites relax entry conditions)
 Progress still restricted at higher levels of leadership
in many institutional sectors
 One resolution of diversity dilemma – ‘Build your own
company’
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Summary
 Chapter has focussed on gender to expose dilemmas of diversity
which apply more widely
 Stereotypical thinking ignores cues of social worth (e.g. evidence
of women executives rating highly on transformational leadership
factors).
 Diversity offers potential for superior performance, but may
challenge leaders to understand and deal with differences
 Social identity maps suggest how diversity may be treated as a
either a problem or an opportunity
 Reflection on dilemmas of diversity help overcome rigid
(stereotyped) beliefs and suggest superior leadership strategies
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