CHAPTER 7
Behavioral and Social
Cognitive Approaches
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Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs through experience.
There are five major approaches to learning.
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Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
Behavioral
Approaches to
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
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Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a
type of learning in which an
organism learns to connect
or associate stimuli. A
neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a
meaningful stimulus and
acquires the capacity to
elicit a similar response.
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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning Principles
Generalization
The tendency of a new stimulus
similar to the original
conditioned stimulus to produce
a similar response.
Discrimination
The organism responds to
certain stimuli but not others.
Extinction
The weakening of the
conditioned response (CR) in
the absence of the
unconditioned response (UCS).
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Systematic Desensitization
Reduces anxiety by getting the
individual to associate deep
relaxation with successive
visualizations of
increasingly
anxiety-producing
situations.
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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel
anxious. From that point on, she always becomes
anxious when taking a math test. As the school year
progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she
has tests in other subject areas as well.
Q.1: Identify the UCS in the example above.
Q.2: Identify the UCR in the example above.
Q.3: Identify the CS in the example above.
Q.4: Identify the CR in the example above.
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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel
anxious. From that point on, she always becomes
anxious when taking a math test. As the school year
progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she
has tests in other subject areas as well.
Q: Why would Patty begin to experience anxiety in
response to tests in content areas other than
math?
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Evaluation of Classical
Conditioning
Good at explaining how neutral stimuli
become associated with unlearned,
involuntary responses
Good at understanding students’
anxieties and fears
Not as effective at explaining voluntary
behaviors
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Operant Conditioning
…is a form of learning in which the consequences of
behavior produce changes in the probability that the
behavior will occur.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behavior
Positive
outcome
Behavior
strengthened
Behavior
Negative
outcome
Behavior
weakened
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Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Consequences are contingent
on the organism’s behavior.
Reinforcement increases the
probability that a behavior will
occur.
Punishment decreases the
probability that a behavior will
occur.
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Operant Conditioning Principles
Generalization
Giving the same response
to similar stimuli.
Discrimination
Differentiating among
stimuli or environmental
events.
Extinction
Previously reinforced
response is no longer
reinforced and the
response decreases.
7.13
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Applied Behavior Analysis
…is applying principles of
operant conditioning to change
human behavior.
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Increasing Desirable Behaviors
Make reinforcers
contingent and timely.
Choose effective
reinforcers.
Select the BEST
reinforcement
schedule.
Consider
contracting.
Use negative
reinforcement
effectively.
Use prompts
and shaping.
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Applied Behavior Analysis
ABC
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Reinforcement: Shaping and
Fading
Shaping:
Involves teaching new behaviors by
reinforcing successive approximations of the desired
behavior.
1.
First, reward any response.
2.
Next, reward responses that resemble the
desired behavior.
3.
Finally, reward only target behavior.
Fading:
1.
2.
Slowly removing reinforcement
Use to initiate behavior.
Once desired behavior is consistent, slowly
reduce or remove reinforcement.
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Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed-Ratio
Reinforce after a set number of
responses
Variable-Ratio
Reinforce after an average but
unpredictable number of
responses
Fixed-Interval
Reinforce appropriate response
after a fixed amount of time
Variable-Interval
Reinforce appropriate response
after a variable amount of time
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Reinforcement Schedules
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Reinforcement
Guidelines for the Classroom:
•
•
•
Initial learning is better with continuous
reinforcement.
Students on fixed schedules show less
persistence, faster response extinction.
Students show greatest persistence on
variable-interval schedule.
The Premack principle states that a high-probability
activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity.
“Eat your dinner and you can go out to play.”
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What would you do to increase
the frequency of these behaviors?
Your class quiets down when you are ready
to start a lesson
An eighth grader hands in his homework
The class lines up for lunch in an orderly
way
Your social studies class listens attentively
to a classmate giving a presentation
A fourth grader asks you insightful questions
during a science lesson
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Identify positive reinforcement, the Premack
principle, and negative reinforcement in the
following examples:
Katya sits at the front of the auditorium
where a speech is being given to get away
from the talking that is going on in the back.
Thomas puts his toys away more frequently
now because he earns colored stickers
when he does.
Nickie is finishing more of her homework
now because she is allowed to listen to CDs
when she is done.
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Operant Conditioning
Response Cost: removal of preestablished reinforcement
Time Out: removal of reinforcing
situation
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Caveats of Time Out
Child must understand what is going on
Adults must be aware
Time out area should be humane and safe
Time out area should be nonreinforcing
Time out should not be used for extended
periods of time
Time out cannot be used to exclude children
from education
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Operant Conditioning
Response Cost: removal of preestablished reinforcement
Time Out: removal of reinforcing
situation
Satiation/Negative Practice: reduce
negative behavior through overload of
positive behavior
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Decreasing Undesirable
Behaviors
1. Use differential reinforcement by
reinforcing more appropriate behavior.
2. Withdraw positive reinforcement
(extinction) from a child’s inappropriate
behavior.
3. Remove desirable stimuli through “timeout” and “response cost.”
4. Present aversive stimuli (punishment).
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How would you attempt to
decrease the following behaviors?
Andrew likes to utter profanities every now
and then
Sandy tells you to quit bugging her when
you ask her questions
Matt likes to mess up other students’ papers
Rebecca frequently talks with other students
around her while you are explaining or
demonstrating something
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Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his
classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often
scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s classmates
laugh when Nick makes remarks. The scolding rarely has
any impact. Nick continues with his antics.
Q.1: What is Mr. Lincoln attempting to do when he scolds Nick?
Q.2: Why does Nick continue his antics in spite of being scolded?
Q.3: What are three strategies Mr. Lincoln could try to keep Nick
more on task?
7.16
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Evaluation of Operant
Conditioning
Good job of describing how teachers give
rewards and take away rewards to modify
behavior
Critics argue places too much emphasis on
external control of behavior
Critics also point out potential ethical
problems exist when used inappropriately
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Reflection
Reflection:
In your educational experience,
what types of incentives did
teachers use?
How effective was their use? Why
were they effective or ineffective?
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory
Social, cognitive, and behavioral factors
play important roles in learning.
Self-efficacy: The belief
that one can master a
situation and produce
positive outcomes.
Observational learning occurs when a
person observes and imitates someone
else’s behavior.
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Bandura’s Reciprocal
Determinism
B
Behavior
P/C
Personal and
cognitive
factors
E
Environment
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Bandura’s Contemporary Model of
Observational Learning
Attention
Retention
Students are more likely to
be attentive to high-status
models (teachers).
Student retention will be
improved when teachers
give logical and clear
demonstrations.
Production
Motivation
Poor motor ability inhibits
reproduction of the model’s
behavior. Help improve
skills.
When given a reinforcement,
modeling increases.
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his
classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often
scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s
classmates laugh when Nick makes remarks. The
scolding rarely has any impact. Nick continues with
his antics. After several days of this, other boys in the
class begin to get out of their seats and make
humorous remarks as well.
Q.1: Why do the other boys begin to misbehave? Explain.
Q.2: What does this say about Nick?
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Classroom Use of Observational
Learning
Decide what type of
model you will be
Demonstrate and teach
new behaviors
Use peers as
effective models
Use mentors as
models
Consider the
models
children observe
in the media
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Self-Reflection
In terms of my final course grades, I
am trying very hard to:
Earn all As
Earn all As and Bs
Keep my overall GPA at or above the
minimally acceptable level at Lycoming
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Self-Reflection (con’t)
As I am reading or studying a
textbook:
I often notice when my attention is
wandering, and I immediately get my
mind back on my work.
I sometimes notice when my attention is
wandering, but not always.
I often get so lost in daydreams that I
waste a lot of time.
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Self-Reflection (con’t)
Whenever I finish a study session:
I write down how much time I have spent
on my schoolwork.
I make a mental note of how much time I
have spent on my schoolwork.
I don’t really think much about the time I
have spent.
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Self-Reflection (con’t)
When I turn in an assignment:
I usually have a good idea of the grade I
will get on it.
I am often surprised by the grade I get.
I don’t think much about the quality of
what I have done.
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Self-Reflection (con’t)
When I do exceptionally well on an
assignment:
I feel good about my performance and might
reward myself in some way.
I feel good about my performance but don’t do
anything special for myself afterward.
I don’t feel much differently than I had before I
received a grade on the assignment.
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A Model of Self-Regulatory
Learning
Self-Evaluation
and Monitoring
Monitoring
Outcomes
and Refining
Strategies
Goal Setting
and
Strategic
Planning
Putting a Plan into
Action and
Monitoring It
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Characteristics of SelfRegulated Learners
Establish goals and standards for their
own performance
Plan a course of action for a learning
task
Control and monitor their cognitive
processes and progress during a
learning task
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I have to remember to go slowly to get
it right. Look carefully at this one, now
look at these carefully. Is this one
different? Yes, it has an extra leaf.
Good, I can eliminate this one. Now,
let’s look at this one. I think it’s this
one, but let me first check the others.
Good, I’m going slow and carefully.
Okay, I think it’s this one.
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Characteristics of SelfRegulated Learners (con’t)
Monitor and try to control their
motivation and emotions
Seek assistance and support when
they need it
Evaluate the final outcomes of their
efforts
Self-impose consequences for their
performance
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Evaluating the Social
Cognitive Perspective
Provides important insights to
understanding children
Emphasis on self-responsibility as opposed
to being controlled by others
Use of self-enacted strategies can
significantly improve students’ learning
Critics feel still places too much emphasis
on behavior and external factors
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