The Urinary System
PART A
1
Kidney Functions



Filter 200 liters of blood daily, allowing toxins,
metabolic wastes, and excess ions to leave the
body in urine
Regulate volume and chemical makeup of the
blood
Maintain the proper balance between water
and salts, and acids and bases
2
Other Renal Functions



Gluconeogenesis during prolonged fasting
Production of renin to help regulate blood
pressure and erythropoietin to stimulate RBC
production
Activation of vitamin D
3
Other Urinary System Organs



Urinary bladder – provides a temporary
storage reservoir for urine
Paired ureters – transport urine from the
kidneys to the bladder
Urethra – transports urine from the bladder out
of the body
4
Urinary System Organs
5
Kidney Location and External
Anatomy





The kidneys lie in a retroperitoneal position in
the superior lumbar region
The right kidney is lower than the left because
it is crowded by the liver
The lateral surface is convex; the medial
surface is concave
The renal hilus leads to the renal sinus
Ureters, renal blood vessels, lymphatics, and
nerves enter and exit at the hilus
6
Layers of Tissue Supporting the
Kidney



Renal capsule – fibrous capsule that surrounds
the kidney
Adipose capsule – cushions the kidney and
helps attach it to the body wall
Renal fascia – outer layer of dense fibrous
connective tissue that anchors the kidney
7
Kidney Location and External Anatomy
8
Internal Anatomy (Frontal
Section)



Cortex – the light colored, outer region
Medulla – exhibits cone-shaped medullary
(renal) pyramids separated by columns
 The medullary pyramid and its surrounding
cortex constitute a lobe
 Base
 Apex or papilla
Minor calyces- collect the urine from the papilla
9
Internal Anatomy




Major calyces
 Receive the urine from the minor calyces
Renal pelvis
 Funnel shaped tube that collect urine from
the major calyces
Renal sinus
Urine flows through the pelvis and ureters to
the bladder
10
Internal Anatomy
11
Blood and Nerve Supply


Approximately one-fourth (1200 ml) of
systemic cardiac output flows through the
kidneys each minute
The nerve supply is via the renal plexus
12
Renal Vascular Pathway
13
The Nephron

Nephrons are the structural and functional
units that form urine, consisting of:
 Glomerulus – a tuft of capillaries associated
with a renal tubule
 Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule – blind,
cup-shaped end of a renal tubule that
completely surrounds the glomerulus
14
The Nephron
corpuscle – the glomerulus and its
Bowman’s capsule
 Glomerular endothelium – fenestrated
epithelium that allows solute-rich, virtually
protein-free filtrate to pass from the blood
into the glomerular capsule
 Renal tubules
 Renal
15
The Nephron
16
Anatomy of the Glomerular
Capsule



The external parietal layer is a structural layer
The visceral layer consists of modified,
branching epithelial podocytes
 Extensions of the octopus-like podocytes
terminate in foot processes
Filtration slits – openings between the foot
processes that allow filtrate to pass into the
capsular space
17
Renal Tubules

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) –
composed of cuboidal cells with numerous
microvilli and mitochondria
 Reabsorbs water and solutes from filtrate
and secretes substances into it
18
Renal Tubules


Loop of Henle – a loop of the renal tubule
 Proximal part is similar to the proximal
convoluted tubule
 Proximal part is followed by the thin segment
(simple squamous cells) and the thick
segment (cuboidal to columnar cells)
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) – cuboidal
cells without microvilli that function more in
secretion than reabsorption
19
Renal Tubule
20
Renal Tubules



The distal portion of the distal convoluted
tubule and the collecting ducts have two types
of cells:
Principal
Intercalated
21
Renal Tubules


Intercalated cells
 Cuboidal cells with microvilli
 Function in maintaining the acid-base
balance of the body
Principal cells
 Cuboidal cells without microvilli
 Help maintain the body’s water and salt
balance
22
Nephrons


Cortical nephrons – 85% of nephrons; located
in the cortex
Juxtamedullary nephrons:
 Are located at the cortex-medulla junction
 Have loops of Henle that deeply invade the
medulla
 Have extensive thin segments
 Are involved in the production of
concentrated urine
23
Nephron Anatomy
24
Capillary Beds of the Nephron


Every nephron has two capillary beds
 Glomerulus
 Peritubular capillaries
Each glomerulus is:
 Fed by an afferent arteriole
 Drained by an efferent arteriole
25
Capillary Beds of the Nephron


Blood pressure in the glomerulus is high
because:
 Arterioles are high-resistance vessels
 Afferent arterioles have larger diameters
than efferent arterioles
Fluids and solutes are forced out of the blood
throughout the entire length of the glomerulus
26
Capillary Beds


Peritubular beds are low-pressure, porous
capillaries adapted for absorption that:
 Arise from efferent arterioles
 Cling to adjacent renal tubules
 Empty into the renal venous system
Vasa recta – long, straight capillaries of
juxtamedullary nephrons
27
Capillary Beds
28
Vascular Resistance in
Microcirculation


Afferent and efferent arterioles offer high
resistance to blood flow
Blood pressure declines from 95mm Hg in
renal arteries to 8 mm Hg in renal veins
29
Vascular Resistance in
Microcirculation


Resistance in afferent arterioles:
 Protects glomeruli from fluctuations in
systemic blood pressure
Resistance in efferent arterioles:
 Reinforces high glomerular pressure
 Reduces hydrostatic pressure in peritubular
capillaries
30
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
(JGA)


Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells
 Enlarged, smooth muscle cells on the
arteriole walls
 Secrete renin
Macula densa
 Tall, closely packed distal tubule cells
 Lie adjacent to JG cells
31
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
(JGA)

Main JGA functions:
 GFR control
 Stimulated by high tubular [NaCl]
 Renin release
 Stimulated by low tubular [NaCl]
 EPO release
32
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
(JGA)

When GFR increases:
 Macula densa senses the increase of flow
and NaCl
 Macula densa sends paracrine message to
afferent arteriole
 Afferent arteriole constricts causing
decrease in GFR
33
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)
34
Filtration Membrane


Filter that lies between the blood and the
interior of the glomerular capsule
It is composed of three layers
 Fenestrated endothelium of the glomerular
capillaries
 Visceral membrane of the glomerular
capsule (podocytes)
 A basement membrane
35
Filtration Membrane
36
Filtration Membrane
37
Filtration Barrier

Mesangial cells:
Secrete cytokines associated with
immune and inflammatory processes
 Have filaments that enable them to
contract and decrease capillary blood
flow
38
Mechanisms of Urine Formation



The kidneys filter the body’s entire plasma
volume 60 times each day
The filtrate:
 Contains all plasma components except
protein
 Loses water, nutrients, and essential ions to
become urine
The urine contains metabolic wastes and
unneeded substances
39
Mechanisms of Urine Formation
• Urine formation and
adjustment of blood
composition involves
three major
processes
– Glomerular
filtration
– Tubular
reabsorption
– Secretion
40
The Urinary System
PART B
41
Glomerular Filtration



Principles of fluid dynamics that account for
tissue fluid in all capillary beds apply to the
glomerulus as well
The glomerulus is more efficient than other
capillary beds because:
 Its filtration membrane is more permeable
 Glomerular blood pressure is higher
 It has a higher net filtration pressure
Plasma proteins are not filtered and are used
to maintain oncotic pressure of the blood
42
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)


The pressure responsible for filtrate formation
NFP equals the glomerular hydrostatic
pressure (HPg) minus the oncotic pressure of
glomerular blood (OPg) combined with the
capsular hydrostatic pressure (HPc)
NFP = HPg – (OPg + HPc)

Colloid osmotic pressure in the capsular space
43
Glomerular Filtration Rate
(GFR)


The total amount of filtrate formed per minute
by the kidneys
Factors governing filtration rate at the capillary
bed are:
 Total surface area available for filtration
 Filtration membrane permeability
 Net filtration pressure
44
Glomerular Filtration Rate
(GFR)


GFR is directly proportional to the NFP
Changes in GFR normally result from changes
in glomerular blood pressure
45
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
46
Regulation of Glomerular
Filtration


If the GFR is too high:
 Needed substances cannot be reabsorbed
quickly enough and are lost in the urine
If the GFR is too low:
 Everything is reabsorbed, including wastes
that are normally disposed of
47
Regulation of Glomerular
Filtration

Three mechanisms control the GFR
 Renal autoregulation
 Neural controls
 Hormonal mechanism
48
Renal Autoregulation

Under normal conditions, renal autoregulation
maintains a nearly constant glomerular filtration
rate
49
Renal Autoregulation

Two types of control
 Myogenic – increased systemic blood
pressure stimulates stretch receptors on the
afferent arterioles that causes its
vasoconstriction
 Important in protecting the kidney from
hypertension-induced glomerular injury
50
Renal Autoregulation

Flow-dependent tubuloglomerular feedback –
increased amount of NaCl in the DCT is
sensed by the macula densa.
 It then releases paracrine signals that cause
afferent vasoconstriction
 If the NaCl in the DCT is reduced the
paracrines signals will cause afferent
vasodilation
51
Sympathetic Nervous System

When the sympathetic nervous system is at
rest:
 Renal blood vessels are maximally dilated
 Autoregulation mechanisms prevail
52
Sympathetic Nervous System


Sympathetic system – when under severe
and acute conditions:
 Norepinephrine and epinephrine cause
vasoconstriction of the afferent arterioles
 GFR will then decrease
The sympathetic nervous system also
stimulates renin release
53
Sympathetic Nervous System




Renin-angiotensin mechanism
Is triggered when the JG cells release renin
Renin converts angiotensinogen into
angiotensin I that is converted to angiotensin II
As a result systemic pressure rises
54
Hormonal Control

Renin release is triggered by:
 Decreased NaCl concentration at the macula
densa
 Direct stimulation of the JG cells via 1adrenergic receptors by renal nerves
 Decreased blood pressure at the glomerulus
55
Hormonal Control

Angiotensin II will
 Causes direct vasoconstriction of the
efferent arteriole  increases GFR
 Stimulates reabsorption of Na
 Directly and through aldosterone
 Stimulates thirst center in the hypothalamus
 Stimulates hypothalamic release of ADH
56
Hormonal Control
 Causes
general vasoconstriction
 Mean arterial pressure rises
 Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
aldosterone
57
58
Extrinsic Control - hormonal

Angiotensin II will
 Causes direct vasoconstriction
 Stimulates reabsorption of Na
 Directly and through aldosterone
 Stimulates thirst center in the hypothalamus
 Stimulates hypothalamic release of ADH
59
Tubular Reabsorption



A return of most of the water and solutes
filtered to the blood
Mainly at PCT
Reabsorption routes
 Transcellular
 Luminal and basolateral membranes of
tubule cells
 Endothelium of peritubular capillaries
60
Tubular Reabsorption
 Paracellular
 Between
tubular cells
Leaky tight junctions
61
Routes of Water and Solute Reabsorption
62
Reabsorption and secretion at
the PCT



Glomerular filtration produces fluid similar to
plasma without proteins
The PCT reabsorbs 60-70% of the filtrate
produced
Secretion also occurs in the PCT
63
Tubular Reabsorption


Tubular cells use active transport to create an
electrochemical gradient
Na is the primary driving force for most renal
reabsorption
 It is directly or indirectly involved passive or
active transport of many substances
64
Tubular Reabsorption

Active transport of Na from the lumen to the
ECF creates an electrochemical gradient
 Lumen becomes negative then ECF
 Anions will follow Na out of the lumen
 Water will follow by osmosis
65
Reabsorption by PCT Cells


Sodium-linked secondary active transport
causes the absorption of many other
substances
 Glucose, amino acids, ions, etc
 Symport /antiport
 Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
 Obligatory water absorption
66
Sodium Reabsorption


Na+ is transported from the lumen into the
tubular cell passively down its electrochemical
gradient
Na is actively transported from the tubular cells
to the interstitial fluid by a
Na+-K+ ATPase pump
67
Sodium Reabsorption


From there it moves to peritubular capillaries
due to:
 Low hydrostatic pressure
 High osmotic pressure of the blood
Na+ reabsorption provides the energy and the
means for reabsorbing most other solutes
68
Reabsorption by PCT Cells
69
Nonreabsorbed Substances


A transport maximum (Tm):
 Reflects the number of carriers in the renal
tubules available
 Exists for nearly every substance that is
actively reabsorbed
When the carriers are saturated, excess of that
substance is excreted
70
Nonreabsorbed Substances


Substances are not reabsorbed if they:
 Lack carriers
 Are not lipid soluble
 Are too large to pass through membrane
pores
Urea, creatinine, and uric acid are the most
important nonreabsorbed substances
71
Absorptive Capabilities of Renal
Tubules and Collecting Ducts


Substances reabsorbed in PCT include:
 Sodium, all nutrients, cations, anions, and
water
 Urea and lipid-soluble solutes
 Small proteins
Loop of Henle reabsorbs:
 Only H2O in the descending limb
 Only electrolytes in the ascending limb
72
Absorptive Capabilities of Renal
Tubules and Collecting Ducts


DCT absorbs:
 Electrolytes and water
Collecting duct absorbs:
 Water and urea
73
Na+ Entry into Tubule Cells





Passive entry: symporter
 Na-K ATPase creates the ionic gradient for
the symporter
In the PCT: facilitated diffusion
In the ascending loop of Henle: actively
In the DCT: Na+-Cl– mainly active. Under
influence of aldosterone
In collecting tubules: primarily active transport.
Also under the influence of aldosterone
74
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Activity


ANP reduces blood Na+ which:
 Decreases blood volume
 Lowers blood pressure
ANP lowers blood Na+ by:
 Acting directly on medullary collecting ducts
to inhibit Na+ reabsorption
 Counteracting the effects of angiotensin II
 Increasing GFR and reducing water
reabsorption
75
Tubular Secretion


Essentially reabsorption in reverse, where
substances move from peritubular capillaries
or tubule cells into filtrate
Tubular secretion is important for:
 Disposing of substances not already in the
filtrate
 Eliminating undesirable substances such as
urea and uric acid
 Ridding the body of excess potassium ions
 Controlling blood pH
76
The Urinary System
PART C
77
Regulation of Urine
Concentration and Volume




Osmolality
 The number of solute particles dissolved in
1L of water
 Reflects the solution’s ability to cause
osmosis
Body fluids are measured in milliosmols
(mOsm)
The kidneys keep the solute load of body fluids
constant at about 300 mOsm
This is accomplished by the countercurrent
mechanism
78
Countercurrent Mechanism


Happens in the medulla
Countercurrent multiplier in the loop of Henle
 Countercurrent
 Fluid flowing in opposite directions in two
adjacent tubules
 Multiplier
 Because it multiplies the salinity deep in
the medulla
79
Countercurrent Mechanism

Countercurrent Exchanger in the vasa recta
 Blood make passive exchange with the
surrounding interstitial fluid of the medulla
 It looses water when flowing into the
medulla
 It gains water and looses NaCl when
blood flows toward the cortex
80
Countercurrent Mechanism



The solute concentration in the loop of Henle
ranges from 300 mOsm to 1200 mOsm
Dissipation of the medullary osmotic gradient is
prevented because the blood in the vasa recta
equilibrates with the interstitial fluid
Vasa recta also delivers blood to the cells in
the area
81
Osmotic Gradient in the Renal Medulla
82
Loop of Henle: Countercurrent
Multiplier


The descending loop of Henle:
 Is relatively impermeable to solutes
 Is permeable to water
 Obligatory water absorption
The ascending loop of Henle:
 Is permeable to solutes
 Is impermeable to water
83
Loop of Henle: Countercurrent
Multiplier

Urea also contributes to the medullary
osmolality
 Thin limbs of Henle absorb urea
 DCT is impermeable to urea
 Collecting ducts in the deep medullary
regions are permeable to urea
84
Loop of Henle: Countercurrent Mechanism
85
Formation of Dilute Urine



Filtrate is diluted in the ascending loop of
Henle
Dilute urine is created by allowing this filtrate to
continue into the renal pelvis
This will happen as long as antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) is not being secreted
86
Formation of Dilute Urine



Collecting ducts remain impermeable to water;
no further water reabsorption occurs
Sodium and selected ions can be removed by
active and passive mechanisms
Urine osmolality can be as low as 50 mOsm
(one-sixth that of plasma)
87
Formation of Concentrated
Urine



Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) inhibits diuresis
This equalizes the osmolality of the filtrate and
the interstitial fluid
In the presence of ADH, 99% of the water in
filtrate is reabsorbed
88
Formation of Concentrated
Urine



ADH-dependent water reabsorption is called
facultative water reabsorption
ADH works by inserting aquaporins into the
principal cells of the collecting ducts
The kidneys’ ability to respond depends upon
the high medullary osmotic gradient
89
Formation of Dilute and Concentrated Urine
90
Diuretics

Chemicals that enhance the urinary output
include:
 Any substance not reabsorbed
 Substances that exceed the ability of the
renal tubules to reabsorb it
 Substances that inhibit Na+ reabsorption
91
Diuretics

Osmotic diuretics include:
 High glucose levels – carries water out with
the glucose
 Alcohol – inhibits the release of ADH
 Caffeine and most diuretic drugs – inhibit
sodium ion reabsorption
 Lasix and Diuril – inhibit Na+-associated
symporters
92
Summary of Nephron Function
93
Renal Clearance


The volume of plasma that is cleared of a
particular substance in a given time
Renal clearance tests are used to:
 Determine the GFR
 Detect glomerular damage
 Follow the progress of diagnosed renal
disease
94
Renal Clearance
RC = UV/P
RC = renal clearance rate
U = concentration (mg/ml) of the substance
in urine
V = flow rate of urine formation (ml/min)
P = concentration of the same substance in
plasma
95
Physical Characteristics of Urine

Color and transparency
 Clear, pale to deep yellow (due to
urochrome)
 Concentrated urine has a deeper yellow
color
 Drugs, vitamin supplements, and diet can
change the color of urine
 Cloudy urine may indicate infection of the
urinary tract
96
Physical Characteristics of Urine

Odor
 Fresh urine is slightly aromatic
 Standing urine develops an ammonia odor
 Some drugs and vegetables (asparagus)
alter the usual odor
97
Physical Characteristics of Urine


pH
 Slightly acidic (pH 6) with a range of 4.5 to
8.0
 Diet can alter pH
Specific gravity
 Ranges from 1.001 to 1.035
 Is dependent on solute concentration
98
Chemical Composition of Urine




Urine is 95% water and 5% solutes
Nitrogenous wastes: urea, uric acid, and
creatinine
Other normal solutes include:
 Sodium, potassium, phosphate, and sulfate
ions
 Calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate ions
Abnormally high concentrations of any urinary
constituents may indicate pathology
99
Ureters


Slender tubes that convey urine from the
kidneys to the bladder
Ureters enter the base of the bladder through
the posterior wall
 This closes their distal ends as bladder
pressure increases and prevents backflow of
urine into the ureters
100
Ureters


Ureters have a trilayered wall
 Transitional epithelial mucosa
 Smooth muscle muscularis
 Fibrous connective tissue adventitia
Ureters actively propel urine to the bladder via
response to smooth muscle stretch
101
Urinary Bladder



Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores
urine
It lies retroperitoneally on the pelvic floor
posterior to the pubic symphysis
 Males – prostate gland surrounds the neck
inferiorly
 Females – anterior to the vagina and
uterus
Trigone – triangular area outlined by the
openings for the ureters and the urethra
 Clinically important because infections tend
102
to persist in this region
Urinary Bladder



The bladder wall has three layers
 Transitional epithelial mucosa
 A thick muscular layer
 A fibrous adventitia
The bladder is distensible and collapses when
empty
As urine accumulates, the bladder expands
without significant rise in internal pressure
103
Urinary Bladder
104
Urethra

Muscular tube that:
 Drains urine from the bladder
 Conveys it out of the body
105
Urethra

Sphincters keep the urethra closed when urine
is not being passed
 Internal urethral sphincter – involuntary
sphincter at the bladder-urethra junction
 External urethral sphincter – voluntary
sphincter surrounding the urethra as it
passes through the urogenital diaphragm
 Levator ani muscle – serves as a voluntary
constrictor of the urethra
106
Urethra



The female urethra is tightly bound to the
anterior vaginal wall
Its external opening lies anterior to the vaginal
opening and posterior to the clitoris
The male urethra has three named regions
 Prostatic urethra – runs within the prostate
gland
 Membranous urethra – runs through the
urogenital diaphragm
 Spongy (penile) urethra – passes through
the penis and opens via the external urethral
107
orifice
Urine – Storage reflex




Distension of bladder walls stimulates stretch
receptors
Visceral afferent fibers take the stimulus to the
sacral region of the spinal cord
Sympathetic stimulation and parasympathetic
inhibition
 Relax the detrusor muscle
 Contracts the internal urethral sphincter
Somatic motor stimulation causes contraction
of the external urethral sphincter
108
Micturition (Voiding or Urination)


The act of emptying the bladder: voiding reflexes
Stretch receptors in the bladder wall send stimulus
to the sacral portion of the spinal cord
 Sympathetic neurons are inhibited
 Parasympathetic neuron are stimulated
 Stimulate detrusor muscle to contract
 Causes internal sphincter to relax
 Somatic motor neurons are inhibited
109
Micturition (Voiding or Urination)
 Also



inhibit synapses on the sympathetic
neurons
The micturition center integrates information
from the bladder with information coming from
amygdala and cerebral cortex
When it is appropriate to urinate the external
sphincter relaxes
Fear prompts urination
110
Micturition (Voiding or Urination)
– Also inhibit synapses on the sympathetic neurons
• The micturition center integrates information
from the bladder with information coming
from amygdala and cerebral cortex
• When it is appropriate to urinate the external
sphincter relaxes
• Fear prompts urination
111
Developmental Aspects





Infants have small bladders and the kidneys cannot
concentrate urine, resulting in frequent micturition
Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter develops
with the nervous system
E. coli bacteria account for 80% of all urinary tract
infections
Sexually transmitted diseases can also inflame the
urinary tract
Kidney function declines with age, with many
elderly becoming incontinent
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