Science 1.10 NCEA L1
Life Processes
1.10 Life Processes 2013
All living things share the characteristics described in MRS C GREN
Life function
Movement
Respiraton
Sensitivity
Circulation
Gives us the ability to….
Growth
Reproduction
Excretion
increase in size
Nutrition
extract useful chemicals
from the environment
move through space
obtain energy through biochemical reactions
respond to stimuli
move nutrients, oxygen, heat and water around the
body
create more living things
dispose of waste chemicals
2
The structure and functions of the human (as an animal) systems:
skeletal, digestive, circulatory, respiratory.
All vertebrates share the
same basic body plan,
with tissues and organs
functioning in a similar
manner. We focus on the
human body, studying
structure (anatomy) and
function (physiology).
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The structure and functions of the human (as an animal) systems:
skeletal, digestive, circulatory, respiratory.
Animals are made of complex systems of cells, which must be able to
perform all of life’s processes and work in a coordinated fashion to
maintain homeostasis (a stable internal environment).
During a human’s early
development, groups of
cells specialize into three
fundamental embryonic
layers. These embryonic
layers differentiate into a
number of specialized cells
and tissues. Tissues are
groups of cells similar in
structure and function .
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The structure and functions of the human (as an animal) systems:
skeletal, digestive, circulatory, respiratory.
Different tissues
functioning together for a
common purpose are
called organs (eg,
stomach, kidney, lung,
heart).
Organ systems are
composed of individual
organs working together
to accomplish a
coordinated activity. For
example, the heart, veins
and arteries all play a role
in circulation.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Movement and Support: The Human skeletal system.
The human skeletal system is an internal
skeleton that serves as a framework for the
body. This framework consists of many
individual bones and cartilages. This also
includes ligaments and the tendons which
hold bones to each other and to muscles
that contract and cause the bones to move.
The adult human skeleton contains more
than 200 bones.
The skeleton also provides mechanical
protection for many of the body's internal
organs, reducing risk of injury to them,
storage of minerals and production of
blood cells.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The main bones in the Human skeletal system.
The main bones of the
human skeleton are
divided into two groups.
The axial skeleton is the
central group of bones
based around the spinal
(vertebral) column.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The appendicular
skeleton consists
of bones or groups
of bones which
“hang” off the
axial skeleton.
The Human skeletal system.
The main bones of the human
skeleton are:
The Skull
Shoulder girdle - clavicle and
scapula
Arm - humerus, radius and ulna
Hand - Carpals, Metacarpals and
Phalanges
Chest - Sternum and Ribs
Spine - vertebrae, Sacrum (5
fused or stuck together bones)
and Coccyx (the tiny bit at the
bottom of the spine).
Pelvic girdle - Ilium, Pubis and
Ischium.
Leg - Femur, Tibia and Fibula
Ankle - Talus and calcaneus
Foot - Tarsals, Metatarsals and
Phalanges
Composition of Bone
A diagram showing a cross-section of the composition of bone.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The structure of the skeleton and muscles of the human leg
The two long bones in the leg provide a rigid frame that the
muscles can pull against to provide movement. The thigh
muscles attach across the knee joint etc.
The muscles are attached to the
bones by tendons. When the
muscles contract they shorten
and move the bones at the
joints.
All of the bones in the skeleton
require muscles in order to
move them. The muscles are
attached by the nervous system
to the brain which controls their
movement – either voluntary or
automatically when required
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The structure of the skeleton and muscles of the human arm
The humerus bone joins the
ulna and radius bones at the
elbow joint to form a rigid but
movable structure. This
allows the skeleton to
provide both support for the
body and movement. The
biceps and triceps muscles
attach across the elbow joint
as an antagonistic pair so that
when the biceps contracts its
bends the arm but when the
triceps contract (biceps relax)
it straightens the arm.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The antagonistic muscles and bones act together to flex or extend the
arm
Muscles can contract, but are not designed to actively lengthen, so they are
arranged as opposing antagonistic pairs. As one muscle shortens, another is
stretched and vice versa. The contacting muscles move the bones they are
attached to.
A joint occurs where two bones meet .
Movement of the skeleton
occurs at the joints where two
or more bones meet. There are
different categories of joints.
Freely movable, or synovial,
joints allow a range of
movement determined by the
structure of the joint.
Examples of movable joints are
the ball and socket (shoulder),
hinge (elbow), pivot (between
the skull and neck) and
ellipsoidal joint (hand and
arm). Ligaments are inelastic
connective tissues which hold
bones together in a joint.
The structure and functions of Cartilage
Cartilage - tough, rubbery surface that allows movement between bones,
replaced by wear, lubricate the joint under pressure
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The structure and functions of Hard and Spongy Bone
Hard (cortical) bone - on the end and sides
aid strength, keeps the weight of bone to a
minimum
Spongy bone – mesh of bone filaments,
provided more internal strength
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The structure and functions of Hard and Spongy Bone
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The structure and functions of Marrow
Marrow –in the middle of long bones
produces red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets.
There are two types of bone marrow:
red marrow that is responsible for
producing red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets
yellow marrow consisting mainly of
fat cells
There are many blood vessels and
capillaries woven through the marrow
making it very vascular.
At birth and in early childhood most of
the marrow is red. More and more of
it is converted to the yellow type as a
person ages. About half of adult bone
marrow is red.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Compact Bone
Compact bone, from human femur. Transverse sections showing cross-sections
and the arrangement of osteons and Haversian canals. Bone is made up of two
types of tissue: the compact bone forms a shell around the spongy cancellous
bone that makes up the marrow space in the centre. Compact bone provides
strength and rigidity and is solid in appearance. It is composed of a layered matrix
of organic substances and inorganic salts that form around an intricate network of
vasculature called Haversian canals.
The structure and functions of Haversian canals
Haversian canals contain
nerves/blood to provide
nutrients to the cells. A
haversian canal is a central
canal within the haversian
system— a network of canals
inside compact bone. Haversian
canals occur in the center of
compact bone and contain
blood vessels, connective
tissues, nerve fibers and
lymphatic vessels. Compact
bone, surround these canals.
Haversian systems run parallel
to the long axis of bones. Each
cylindrical unit within compact
bone is an entire haversian
system.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The structure and functions of Bone cells / osteocytes
Bone cells make up bone
tissue using calcium
compound to increase
strength. Osteocytes are the
most abundant cell type in
the bone, comprising more
than 90% of all cells within
the bone matrix or on bone
surfaces. Osteocytes are
derived from osteoblasts
and are laid down in the
bone matrix during bone
formation.
Tissue types in an arm
Broken Bones
Broken bones cause pain
and mean the injured human
is unable to move easily, as
the muscles don’t have
anything to pull/contract on.
If more pressure is put on a
bone than it can stand, it will
split or break. A break of any
size is called a fracture. If
the broken bone punctures
the skin, it is called an open
fracture (compound
fracture).
A stress fracture is a hairline
crack in the bone that
develops because of
repeated or prolonged
forces against the bone.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Implications of a broken bone
Implications of a broken
bone cause a reduction in
support and movement as
the muscles no longer have a
rigid frame to pull against.
There is also the chance of
Increased infection risk from
break especially with a
compound fracture or open
fracture
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Environmental Factors affecting support and Movement
Environmental factors can include
Aging.
Aging ➙ reduced activity ➙
muscle loss ➙ reduced support
Age ➙ wear ➙arthritis ➙ reduced
mobility
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Environmental Factors affecting support and Movement
Environmental
factors can
include
age/weight
gain/gravity,
hormone
deficiency,
calcium uptake
and loss
(osteoporosis).
Age ➙ wear
➙arthritis ➙
reduced mobility
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Normal bone
A scanning electron micrograph of normal bone. This sample is from a vertebra (a
bone of the spine) of a healthy male.
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Bone affected by osteoporosis
A thin slice of an osteoporotic vertebra (a bone of the spine) from an 89-year-old
woman, showing damage to the structure of the bone. This image has been colour
enhanced.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Bone affected by osteoporosis
A scanning electron micrograph of osteoporotic bone. This sample is from a vertebra (a
bone of the spine) of an 89-year-old woman with osteoporosis.
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Human Skeleton
The skeleton of a human male in a sitting position.
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Human Fingers
The bones of the human fingers, wearing a ring. This image is a photograph of an X-ray
attributed to L Ropner, 1897.
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Female figure running
Artwork of the figure of a woman running, revealing the skeleton beneath transparent
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skin.
Xray of hip bone
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Growth
Bone cells are called
osteocytes and are made
through the process of
mitosis during cell
division for growth and
repair. Mitosis rate is
significantly influenced
by age and hormone
levels. For example
during infancy human
growth hormone levels
are high promoting rapid
cell division and growth
as the long bones extend
at the growth plates and
deposition levels are high
as long as diet sufficient
in nutrient such as
calcium and phosphate.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Growing Bone
A region of growth (epiphyseal growth plate) in an immature thighbone. Cartilage is
stained purple, and bone is stained yellow-green. The rapidly dividing cartilage cells
within the purple band at the top form stacks that run parallel to the long axis of the
bone. Below this zone, the cartilage becomes calcified and the cartilage cells
(chondrocytes) die. Further down is the ossification zone, where the bone tissue is laid
down.
The structure and functions of the human (as an animal) systems:
skeletal, digestive, circulatory, respiratory.
Bone cells are
called osteocytes
and are made
through the
process of mitosis
during cell
division for
growth and
repair.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
The epiphysis
The ‘epiphysis’ is the rounded end of a long bone - the region of bone that forms joints
with adjacent bones. The process seen here is ossification, the growth process that
results in the generation of new bone. Calcification occurs during ossification.
Environmental factors: Diet
Diet
If calcium is lacking from a persons diet then
depositions of calcium during normal bone
growth can be reversed to release calcium
from the bones, this causes weakening of the
bones and conditions such as osteoporosis.
A good diet is required to develop muscle
and bone as well as adequate levels of
human growth hormone. Calcium and
phosphate help to produce strong bones and
protein is required for muscle development.
If bones and muscles do not grow adequately
the person will struggle to move around
efficiently and this could cause issues with
their lives.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Skeleton of a man with numerous osseous growths
The skeleton of a man, aged 39 years, which had numerous osseous growths of varied
dimensions. From the Hunterian specimen in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons, no.1616a. Presented by Samuel George Shattock, Esq (1888-1889).
Environmental factors: Age
Age
Age influences bone growth and repair as
when you are younger you bones are
developing faster and mitosis is producing
new osteocytes quickly. This means that
when young children break a bone it usually
repairs quickly e.g. greenstick breaks.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Environmental factors: Steroids
Chemicals that can influence growth include steroids. They can increase the rate of
mitosis and produce bigger muscles. However there are sometimes negative effects
on growth taking steroids especially for young children and adolescents as increased
levels of these hormones can actually signal bones to stop growing
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Linking Structure and Movement with Environmental Factors.
Reasons are given that link the structure/functioning of a bone AND the effect of an
environmental factor on support and/or movement. MERIT
Structure and Function
Cartilage - tough, rubbery surface that allows movement between bones, replaced by
wear, lubricate the joint under pressure
Hard bone - on the end and sides aid strength, keeps the weight of bone to a minimum
Spongy bone – mesh of bone filaments, provided more internal strength
Marrow – red, in the middle produces red blood cells
Haversian/canals – contain nerves/blood to provide nutrients to the cells
Bone cells/osteoctyes – make up bone tissue using calcium compound to increase
strength
Broken bones means the animal is unable to move easily, as the muscles don’t have
anything to pull/contract on.
The two long bones in the leg provide a rigid frame that the muscles can pull against to
provide movement. The thigh muscles attach across the knee joint etc.
Environmental factor
age/weight gain/gravity, hormone deficiency, calcium uptake and loss (osteoporosis).
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Linking Structure and Movement with Environmental Factors.
Significant links are made between the structure/functioning of the bones AND an
implication of effect of a broken bone on support and/or movement. EXCELLENCE
Structure and Function:
The humerus bone joins the ulna and radius bones at the elbow joint to form a rigid but
movable structure. This allows the skeleton to provide both support for the body and
movement. The biceps and triceps muscles attach across the elbow joint as an
antagonistic pair so that when the biceps contracts its bends the arm but when the
triceps contract (biceps relax) it straightens the arm.
Environmental factor:
Implications of a broken bone e.g. reduction in support and movement as the muscles
no longer have a rigid frame to pull against.
Aging
➙ reduced activity ➙ muscle loss ➙ reduced support
OR
age ➙ wear ➙arthritis ➙ reduced mobility
OR
Another reasoned link e.g. increased infection risk from break.
Linking Growth with Environmental Factors.
Reasons are given that link a feature of growth and the physical characteristics
observed to the effect of ONE environmental factor (e.g. age, exercise, diet,
chemicals) on growth. MERIT
Diet
If calcium is lacking from a persons diet then depositions of calcium during normal
bone growth can be reversed to release calcium from the bones, this causes
weakening of the bones and conditions such as osteoporosis.
A good diet is required to develop muscle and bone as well as adequate levels of
human growth hormone. Calcium and phosphate help to produce strong bones and
protein is required for muscle development. If bones and muscles do not grow
adequately the person will struggle to move around efficiently and this could cause
issues with their lives.
Age
Age influences bone growth and repair as when you are younger you bones are
developing faster and mitosis is producing new osteocytes quickly. This means that
when young children break a bone it usually repairs quickly e.g. greenstick breaks.
1.10 Life Processes 2013
Linking Growth with Environmental Factors.
Significant links are made between the biological ideas relating to growth, (life
process) AND an implication of effect the environmental factor on the growth of
the organism (human). EXCELLENCE
Steroids
Bone cells are called osteocytes and are made through the process of mitosis during
cell division for growth and repair. Mitosis rate is significantly influenced by age and
hormone levels. For example during infancy human growth hormone levels are high
promoting rapid cell division and growth as the long bones extend at the growth
plates and deposition levels are high as long as diet sufficient in nutrient such as
calcium and phosphate.
Chemicals that can influence growth include steroids. They can increase the rate of
mitosis and produce bigger muscles. However there are sometimes negative effects
on growth taking steroids especially for young children and adolescents as increased
levels of these hormones can actually signal bones to stop growing
1.10 Life Processes 2013