Cell Structure and Function 1 Ch. 4 Outline – Cell Structure & Function Cell Structure and Function Cell Theory A unifying concept in biology States that: All organisms are composed of cells - Matthais Schleiden in 1838 - Theodor Schwann in 1839 All cells come only from preexisting cells - Rudolph Virchow in 1850’s Smallest unit of life 2 Organisms and Cells 3 Sizes of Living Things 4 Cell Structure and Function Cell Size Most much smaller than one millimeter (mm) Some as small as one micrometer (mm) Size restricted by Surface/Volume (S/V) ratio Surface is membrane, across which cell acquires nutrients and expels wastes Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands nutrients and produces wastes As cell grows, volume increases faster than surface Cells specialized in absorption modified to greatly increase surface area per unit volume 5 Surface to Volume Ratio Total Surface Area 96 cm2 192 cm2 384 cm2 Total Volume 64 cm3 64 cm3 64 cm3 Surface Area Per Cube / Volume Per Cube 1.5 : 1 3:1 6:1 6 7 1. Magnification a. How much larger the object appears compared to real size 8 a. Measure of clarity of image b. Minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as two separate points vs science focus Cell Structure and Function Microscopy Today: Compound Light Microscope Light passed through specimen Focused by glass lenses Image formed on human retina Max magnification about 1000X Resolves objects separated by 0.2 mm, 500X better than human eye 9 science focus Cell Structure and Function Microscopy Today: Transmission Electron Microscope Abbreviated T.E.M. Electrons passed through specimen Focused by magnetic lenses Image formed on fluorescent screen Similar to TV screen Image is then photographed Max magnification 1,000,000 X Resolves objects separated by 0.00002 mm, 100,000X better than human eye 10 science focus Cell Structure and Function Microscopy Today: Scanning Electron Microscope 11 Abbreviated S.E.M. Specimen sprayed with thin coat of metal Electron beam scanned across surface of specimen Metal emits secondary electrons Emitted electrons focused by magnetic lenses Image formed on fluorescent screen Similar to TV screen Image is then photographed science focus Cell Structure and Function 12 Microscopy Today: Immunofluorescence Light Microscope Antibodies developed against a specific protein Fluorescent dye molecule attached to antibody molecules Specimen exposed to fluorescent antibodies Ultra-violet light (black light) passed through specimen Fluorescent dye glows in color where antigen is located Emitted light is focused by glass lenses Allows mapping distribution of a specific protein in cell science focus Microscopy Today: Confocal Microscopy Cell Structure and Function Narrow laser beam scanned across transparent specimen Beam is focused at a very thin plane Allows microscopist to optically section a specimen Sections made at different levels Allows assembly of 3D image on computer screen that can be rotated 13 science focus Cell Structure and Function Microscopy Today: Video-enhanced Contrast Microscopy 14 Great for specimens with low contrast, like living cells Image is captured by TV camera instead of eye Image is then “tweaked” by adjusting contrast Darkest part of image is made black Lightest part of image is made white All parts in between made shades of gray Also allows various shades to be converted to different colors for more contrast science focus Cell Structure and Function Microscopy Today: Phase Contrast Microscopy Great for transparent specimens with low contrast, like living cells Some organelles have higher density than others 15 Speed of light is affected by density Light passes more slowly through high density than low density Light waves entering a specimen “in phase” exit some parts of the specimen out of phase Microscope shows only light that is slower or faster Causes transparent organelles to “glow” Microscopy and Amoeba proteus 16 Microscopy and Cheek Cells 17 Prokaryotic Cells: Domains Lack a membrane-bound nucleus Structurally simple Two domains: Bacteria - Three Shapes Bacillus (rod) Coccus (spherical) Spirilla (spiral) Archaea - Live in extreme habitats Cell Structure and Function 18 Shapes of Bacterial Cells 19 Prokaryotic Cells: Visual Summary 20 Prokaryotic Cells: The Envelope Cell Structure and Function Cell Envelopes Glycocalyx - Layer of polysaccharides outside cell wall - May be slimy and easily removed, or - Well organized and resistant to removal (capsule) Cell wall Plasma membrane - Like in eukaryotes - Form internal pouches (mesosomes) 21 Prokaryotic Cells: Cytoplasm & Appendages Cell Structure and Function 22 Cytoplasm Semifluid solution - Bounded by plasma membrane - Contains inclusion bodies – Stored granules of various substances Appendages Flagella – Provide motility Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that sprout from the cell surface Sex pili – rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA from cell to cell Cell Structure and Function Eukaryotic Cells Domain Eukarya Protists Fungi Plants Animals Cells contain: Membrane-bound nucleus Specialized organelles Plasma membrane 23 Eukaryotic Cells : Organelles Cell Structure and Function 24 Compartmentalization: Allows eukaryotic cells to be larger than prokaryotic cells Isolates reactions from others Two classes: Endomembrane system: - Organelles that communicate with one another via membrane channels Via small vesicles Energy related organelles - Mitochondria & chloroplasts - Basically independent & self-sufficient Plasma Membrane 25 Hypothesized Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 26 Endosymbiosis science focus Cell Fractionation, and Differential Centrifugation Cell Structure and Function 27 Cell fractionation is the breaking apart of cellular components Differential centrifugation: Allows separation of cell parts Separated out by size & density Works like spin cycle of washer The faster the machine spins, the smaller the parts that settled out Science Focus Cell Fractionation, and Differential Centrifugation Grind cells Centrifuge @ 600 g Sediment contains nuclei Figure 4C Then centrifuge longer @ 15,000 g Sediment contains mitochondria, lysosomes Then centrifuge even longer @ 100,000 g Sediment contains ribosomes, ER Soluble portion of cytoplasm. No sediment 28 Animal Cell Anatomy 29 Plant Cell Anatomy 30 Cell Structure and Function 31 Nucleus Command center of cell, usually near center Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear envelope Consists of double layer of membrane Nuclear pores permit exchange between nucleoplasm & cytoplasm Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm Chromatin contains DNA of genes Condenses to form chromosomes Dark nucleolus composed of rRNA Produces subunits of ribosomes Anatomy of the Nucleus 32 Cell Structure and Function Ribosomes Serve in protein synthesis Composed of rRNA Consists of a large subunit and a small subunit Subunits made in nucleolus May be located: On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby making it “rough”), or Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups called polyribosomes 33 Nucleus, Ribosomes, & ER Figure 4.9 34 Cell Structure and Function Endomembrane System Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific compartments within cell Consists of: Nuclear envelope Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Vesicles - Several types - Transport materials between organelles of system 35 Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary36 Endomembrane System: The Endoplasmic Reticulum Cell Structure and Function 37 Rough ER Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side Protein anabolism - Synthesizes proteins - Modifies proteins Adds sugar to protein Results in glycoproteins Smooth ER No ribosomes Synthesis of lipids Endoplasmic Reticulum 38 Endomembrane System: The Golgi Apparatus Cell Structure and Function 39 Golgi Apparatus Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules Resembles stack of hollow pancakes Modifies proteins and lipids - Packages them in vesicles - Receives vesicles from ER on cis face - Prepares for “shipment” in vesicles from trans face Within cell Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis) Golgi Apparatus 40 Endomembrane System: Lysosomes Cell Structure and Function 41 Membrane-bound vesicles (not in plants) Produced by the Golgi apparatus Low pH Contain lytic enzymes - Digestion of large molecules - Recycling of cellular resources - Apoptosis (programmed cell death, like tadpole losing tail) Some genetic diseases Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs) Lysosomes 42 Cell Structure and Function Peroxisomes Similar to lysosomes Membrane-bounded vesicles Enclose enzymes However Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in cytoplasm (instead of ER) Active in lipid metabolism Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide H2O2 - Toxic - Broken down to water & O2 by catalase 43 Peroxisomes 44 Cell Structure and Function 45 Vacuoles Membranous sacs that are larger than vesicles Store materials that occur in excess Others very specialized (contractile vacuole) Plants cells typically have a central vacuole Up to 90% volume of some cells Functions in: - Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and waste products - Development of turgor pressure - Some functions performed by lysosomes in other eukaryotes Vacuoles 46 Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary47 Energy-Related Organelles: Chloroplast Structure Cell Structure and Function 48 Bounded by double membrane Inner membrane not folded Disc-like thylakoids are stacked to form grana Suspended in semi-fluid stroma Green due to chlorophyll Green photosynthetic pigment Found ONLY in membranes of thylakoids of chloroplast Energy-Related Organelles: Chloroplasts Cell Structure and Function 49 Captures light energy to drive cellular machinery Photosynthesis Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O Makes own food using CO2 as only carbon source Energy-poor compounds converted to energy rich compounds Energy-Related Organelles: Chloroplast Structure 50 Energy-Related Organelles: Mitochondria Cell Structure and Function 51 Bounded by double membrane Cristae – Infoldings of inner membrane that encloses matrix Matrix – Inner semifluid containing respiratory enzymes Involved in cellular respiration Produce most of ATP utilized by the cell Energy-Related Organelles: Mitochondrial Structure 52 Cell Structure and Function The Cytoskeleton Maintains cell shape Assists in movement of cell and organelles Three types of macromolecular fibers Actin Filaments Intermediate Filaments Microtubules Assemble and disassemble as needed 53 Cell Structure 54 The Cytoskeleton: and Function Actin Filaments Extremely thin filaments like twisted pearl necklace Dense web just under plasma membrane maintains cell shape Support for microvilli in intestinal cells Intracellular traffic control For moving stuff around within cell Cytoplasmic streaming Function in pseudopods of amoeboid cells Pinch mother cell in two after animal mitosis Important component in muscle contraction (other is myosin) The Cytoskeleton: Actin Filament Operation 55 Cell Structure 56 The Cytoskeleton: and Function Intermediate Filaments Intermediate in size between actin filaments and microtubules Rope-like assembly of fibrous polypeptides Vary in nature From tissue to tissue From time to time Functions: Support nuclear envelope Cell-cell junctions, like those holding skin cells tightly together The Cytoskeleton: Microtubules Cell Structure and Function 57 Hollow cylinders made of two globular proteins called a and b tubulin Spontaneous pairing of a and b tubulin molecules form structures called dimers Dimers then arrange themselves into tubular spirals of 13 dimers around Assembly: Under control of Microtubule Organizing Center (MTOC) Most important MTOC is centrosome Interacts with proteins kinesin and dynein to cause movement of organelles The Cytoskeleton: Microtubule Operation 58 Microtubular Arrays: Centrioles Cell Structure and Function 59 Short, hollow cylinders Composed of 27 microtubules Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets One pair per animal cell Located in centrosome of animal cells Oriented at right angles to each other Separate during mitosis to determine plane of division May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and flagella Cytoskeleton: Centrioles 60 Cell Structure 61 Microtubular arrays: and Function Cilia and Flagella Hair-like projections from cell surface that aid in cell movement Very different from prokaryote flagella Outer covering of plasma membrane Inside this is a cylinder of 18 microtubules arranged in 9 pairs In center are two single microtubules This 9 + 2 pattern used by all cilia & flagella In eukaryotes, cilia are much shorter than flagella Cilia move in coordinated waves like oars Flagella move like a propeller or cork screw Structure of a Flagellum 62 63 Video: The Inner Life of a Cell http://multimedia.mcb.harvard.edu/a nim_innerlife_Hi.html