PART 1. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
I. STEPS
1. PROBLEM - always in the form of a QUESTION
2. GATHER INFORMATION
3. HYPOTHESIS – EDUCATED GUESS
4. EXPERIMENT – test hypothesis
5. OBSERVATIONS - analyze data, charts, graphs…
6. CONCLUSION - is your hypothesis right or wrong?
7. Repeat
II. EXPERIMENT.
1. Example: A student set up the experiment shown to learn
about plant growth. The student added a different
amount of water to 4 identical containers, each
containing 4 seeds in 100 cubic centimeters of soil. All of
the containers were placed in the same sunny location.
The height of the plants were measured and recorded for
5 weeks.
a. Hypothesis
• I believe that the
plants getting the
most water will grow
the most.
b. Independent variable
• WATER
c. Dependent variable
• HEIGHT
d. Control Group =
• Seeds that do not
receive water
e. 3 constants
• Amount of soil, amount
of sunlight, # of seeds
f. What can be done to make
the experiment more
valid?
• Repeat, increase sample
size, use only one
variable
2. Identify 2 safety rules that must be followed
when performing a lab.
• Wear goggles to protect your eyes.
• Point a test tube up and away from you
and anyone else when heating up a
substance.
• No fooling around in the lab.
• No eating or drinking in the lab.
• Notify the teacher if anything spills or
breaks.
PART 2. MEASUREMENT
I. LENGTH – meter
1. What is the length of the tadpole at the right?
In centimeters=
• 3.1 cm
In millimeters =
• 31 mm
II. MASS –
• the amount of matter in an object
1. What instrument is being used to measure the
mass of the object at the right?
• TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE
2. What is the mass of the object?
• 175.0 gm
III. VOLUME
• The amount of space an object
takes up
1. Calculate the volume of the block
below. Show all work in the work
space below.
• V=lxw xh
• V = 2.4 cm x 4.2 cm x 5.3 cm
• V = 53.4 cm3
2. What is the name of
the instrument below?
• GRADUATED
CYLINDER
2. What is the name of
the instrument below?
• GRADUATED
CYLINDER
3. What is the volume
of the water?
• 16mL
4. What is the volume of rock below?
• 16 mL – 14 mL
• V = 2.0 mL
IV. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the temperature shown
in the thermometer shown at
the right?
• 25°C
2. Convert the following measurements:
a. 2.45 cm = ?km
k
0.0000245 km
h
Left
d
Base ( meter, liter, gram)
m
b. 5.46 L = ?mL
5460.0 mL
Right
d
c
m
PART 3. MICROSCOPE
I. PARTS & FUNCTIONS:
1. eyepiece/ocular lens –
lens that you look
through
2. body tube – connects
objective & eyepiece
3. stage – holds the slide
4. coarse adjustment
knob – focusing under
low power.
5. mirror/light source –
provides light
6. fine adjustment knob –
focusing for high power
7. base – structure that
supports microscope
8. objective lens – lenses
that magnify
9. diaphragm – controls
amount of light
10. arm – supports body
tube
II. LABEL THE PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE
BELOW.
Eyepiece / ocular lens
Coarse adjustment knob
Body tube
Fine adjustment knob
Objective lens
Arm
Stage
Diaphragm
Nosepiece
Mirror / light
Base
III. USING THE MICROSCOPE
1. What would happen if you used the coarse
adjustment under high power?
• The lens and the slide may break!
2. When you observe a specimen using a microscope,
how does the specimen appear?
• Upside down and backwards
3. When you move the slide in any direction, how does
the specimen on the slide appear to move?
• In the opposite direction
4. Which objective lens allows you to observe LARGER
field of view?
• Low power
5. Calculate the total magnification:
Eyepiece = 15x, Objective = 5x
• Total Mag = 75x
6. What is the student in the picture at the right
preparing?
• Wet mount
7. Why should the student make sure the cover
slip is lowered at an angle?
• To prevent air bubbles from forming
IV. MEASURING WITH THE MICROSCOPE
1. What is the diameter
of the field of view
shown below?
• 3.6 mm
• 3600 um
2. What is the length of
one of the cells
shown below?
• 1.5/3 =
• 0.5 mm
• 500 um
3. Determine the lengths of the objects
in the microscopes field of view
below?
a. 0.8 mm
800 um
4. How many micrometers make up one
millimeter?
• 1000 um
PART 4. CHEMISTRY
• 1. Label the parts of the atom below,
and complete the chart.
electron
neutron
proton
CHARGE
SUBATOMIC LOCATION
PARTICLE
Electron
Outside nucleus Negative
(electron cloud)
Neutron
Nucleus
No charge
Proton
Nucleus
positive
• 2. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING TERMS:
• a. ELEMENT –
• Simple substance that cannot be broken
down into something more simple
• b. COMPOUND –
• 2 or more elements chemically combined
• 3. Identify each property below as a
physical or chemical property.
a. Burning:
• chemical
b. color:
• physical
c. phase (solid, liquid, gas):
• physical
• 4. Identify each change below as a
physical or chemical change.
a. Ripping paper:
• physical
b. burning paper:
• chemical
c. melting:
• physical
d. baking a cake
• chemical
5. Fill in the chart below describing
phases of matter:
SPEED
PHASE OF
MATTER
a. SOLID
POSITION OF
PARTICLES
Tightly packed
b. LIQUID
Sliding past each A little faster
other
Very far apart Very fast
c. GAS
vibrating
6. For each phase change below, identify how the
material is changing.
a. melting:
• SL
b. freezing
• LS
c. evaporation
• LG
d. condensation
• GL
7. Identify 4 properties of metals:
• A. have luster
• B. Ductile
• C. Malleable
• D. Good conductors of heat and electricity
8. Identify 3 properties of nonmetals:
• A. brittle
• B. Dull (not shiny)
• C. Poor conductors of heat and electricity
9. Identify the parts of the periodic table being described
below:
a. Rows:
• periods
b. Elements to left of zig zag line:
• metals
c. Columns:
• Groups/families
d. Noble Gases:
• Group 18
e. Group 18:
• Noble Gases
f. On zig zag line:
• Semi-metals/metalloids
g: Elements to right of zig zag line:
• nonmetals
10. Atomic number:
• # of protons
11. Mass number:
• Atomic mass rounded to
nearest whole number
12. The diagram below represents n element from the
period table.
Atomic #:
• 14
Atomic Mass =
• 28.0855
Mass # =
• 28
# of protons in each atom of this element =
• 14
# of neutrons
• 28-14 = 14
• 13. On the pH scale below label which section refers
to acids, bases, and which pH is considered neutral.
base
acids
neutral
PART 5. CELLS
I. CELL THEORY
1. Who developed the cell theory?
•
•
•
•
a. Hooke = cork under named what he
saw “cells”
b. Schleiden = all plants are made of
cells
c. Schwann = all animals are made of
cells
d. Virchow = all cells come from other
cells
2. a. List the parts of the CELL
THEORY below.
• Cells are the basic unit of structure
for all living things.
• Cells are the basic unit of function for
all living things.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.
II. CELL ORGANELLES
1. Cell membrane – semipermeable
2. Nucleus – control center
a. Nuclear membrane – surrounds
nucleus
b. Nucleolus – produces ribosomes
c. Chromosomes – genetic material
3. Cytoplasm – jelly-like materials,
holds all organelles
4. Mitchondria – produces energy
(by respiration)
5. Endoplasmic Reticulum –tunnels
in the cytoplasm (transport)
6. Vacuoles – storage
7. Ribosomes – produce proteins
8. Golgi bodies – packages and
ships
III. ORGANELLES FOUND
ONLY IN PLANT CELLS
1. Cell Wall – outer wall made of
cellulose, protects, gives plant cell
shape
2. Chloroplasts – carry out
photosynthesis, contain
chlorophyll (absorbs light)
IV. ORGANELLES FOUND
ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS
1. Lysosomes – contain enzymes
that break down/digest materials
2. Centrioles – aid in cell division
V. LABEL THE CELLS ORGANELLES BELOW:
D. Ribosomes
E. Cytoplasm
F. Lysosome
G. Vacuole
H. Golgi bodies
I. Mitochondria
J. DNA
A. Nuclear membrane
K. Nucleus
L. Nucleolus
B. Centrioles
M. ER
C. Cell membrane
E. Chloroplasts
F. Ribosome
G. DNA
H. Nucleus
I. Nuclear membrane
J. Nucleolus
K. Mitochondria
A. ER
C. Cell wall
L. Cytoplasm
B. Vacuole
D. Cell membrane
M. Golgi bodies
VI. TRANSPORT
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT: 2 TYPES
1. DIFFUSION – high low, WITH CONC
GRADIENT, NO ENERGY
2. OSMOSIS – diffusion of water (high low)
a. What happens to a cell if it’s placed in
salt water?
• Water leaves the cell (osmosis) 
cell shrivels up
b. What happens if it is placed in pure
water?
• Water enters the cell (osmosis) 
swells
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT –
• low to high,
• AGAINST CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT
• ENERGY REQUIRED
a. Label each diagram as diffusion, osmosis, or
active transport.
1. Active transport
2. Diffusion
(passive transport)
3. Osmosis
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
VII. RESPIRATION – glucose broken down to produce
ENERGY (ATP), MITOCHONDRIA
TYPES:
1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION – uses oxygen, 36 ATP
2. a. Label the equation below.
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP
glucose oxygen carbon water
dioxide
energy
2. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION –
fermentation, does not require
oxygen, produces only 2 ATP
a. ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
(yeast)
C6H12O6  alcohol +
CO2
+ 2ATP
b. LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
(muscles)
C6H12O6  lactic acid + CO2
+ 2ATP
VIII. LIVING THINGS
a. UNICELLULAR ORGANISM –
• A living thing made up of only once cell
b. MULTICELLUAR ORGANISM –
• A living thing made up of 2 or more cells
c. Identify the 5 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN
A MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM
CELLS  TISSUES  ORGANS  ORGAN
SYSTEM  ORGANISM
d. HOMEOSTASIS –
• Maintaining a stable, internal environment
PART 6. CLASSIFICATION
I. CLASSIFICATION – grouping organisms
according to similar characteristics
1. PROKARYOTIC CELL –
• Cell that does not contain a nucleus
• (Bacteria)
2. EUKARYOTIC CELL –
• Cell that has a nucleus
• Make up multicellular organisms
II. 7 LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION:
KINGDOM  PHYLUM  CLASS  ORDER  FAMILY  GENUS  SPECIES
(largest, most diverse)
(smallest, most similar)
Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Stools
III. BINOMIAL NOMENTCALTURE
• Genus species
3. Example: Homo sapiens 
Homo = Genus,
sapiens = species
IV. 6 KINGDOMS
1. Fill in the missing parts of the chart.
KINGDOM
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLES
1.
Eubacteria
-unicellular
2.
unicellular
-prokaryotic
-heterotrophic or
autotrophic
Bacteria found in
extreme
environments
(thermal vents)
-unicellular
Animal like = ameba,
paramecium
Plant like = algae, euglena
Archaebacteria
3.
PROTISTS
-prokaryotic
-heterotrophic or
autotrophic
-eukaryotic
-heterotrophic or
autotrophic
Bacteria found
everywhere
KINGDOM
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLES
4. FUNGI
-heterotrophic
-mostly multicellular
Mushroom, yeast, mold,
mildew
5.
PLANT
-multicellular
-autotrophic
Trees, grass,
flowers…
6. ANIMAL
-multicellular
-heterotrophic
Jellyfish, humans, cats,
dogs, fish,
grasshoppers,
bears…
3. TENDONS – connective
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS
tissue which connects
PART 7. SKELTAL SYSTEM
I. FUNCTIONS
1. movement
2. protection & support
3. makes blood cells
4. shape
5. stores materials (calcium &
phosphorus)
II. PARTS
1.
BONES – 206 in body
bone marrow – produces blood cells
2. CARTILAGE
a.
flexible
b.
protection & support
c. cushioning (bw vertebrae)
d. make up body parts (nose, ears)
e. end of bones
MUSCLES TO BONES
4. LIGAMENTS – connective
tissue which connects
BONE TO BONE
5. JOINT – where 2 bones
meet
PART 8. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
• LOCOMOTION (movement)
by contracting and relaxing
of the muscles
II. TYPES OF MUSCLES
Fill in the missing parts of the chart below.
MUSCLE
VOLUNTARY/INVOL
1.
voluntary
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
2. Smooth
Muscle
INVOLUNTARY
3.
CARDIAC
MUSCLE
Involuntary
STRIATED/NON
LOCATION
STRIATED
attached to
bones
NONSTRIATED digestive
striated
system,
blood
vessels..
HEART
4. How do skeletal muscles
WORK IN PAIRS?
• One contracts while the other
relaxes.
PART 9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – NUTRITION
a. INGESTION – taking in of
food
b. DIGESTION – the breakdown
of food
c. EGESTION – the removal of
undigested wastes
II. NUTRIENTS – substances needed by the
human body
4. VITAMINS - normal
1.
•
•
CARBOHYDRATES
sugars & starches
provide ENERGY
2. PROTEINS
•
amino acids
•
build & repair
3. LIPIDS
•
Energy, protection,
insulation
functioning
5. MINERALS - normal
functioning
6. WATER - makes up body,
transport, chemical
reactions
III. 2 TYPES OF DIGESTION
1. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
• physical breakdown
2. CHEMICAL DIGESTION
• breaking down using ENZYMES
IV. PARTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
b. HELPER ORGANS
1. MOUTH
-LIVER – makes bile,
a. mechanical digestion begins
(teeth)
EMULSIFICATION of fat
b. chemical digestion begins –
-GALL BLADDER – stores bile
enzymes in saliva, (starches 
-PANCREAS – pancreatic juice sugar)
many enzymes
2. EPIGLOTTIS – closes over trachea
to prevent choking
c. ABSORBS NUTRIENTS
3. ESOPHAGUS – pushes food to
-VILLI – folds that absorb
stomach (PERISTALSIS)
nutrients into bloodstream.
4. STOMACH
6. LARGE INTESTINE – water
a. mechanical digestion - churning
absorbed from feces, bacteria
food
which make vitamins
b. chemical digestion of proteins
c. mix of food = chyme
7. RECTUM – stores waste
5. SMALL INTESTINE – most
(feces)
digestion
8. ANUS – where wastes leave
occurs, digestion ends
the body
a. INTESTINAL JUICES many
enzymes
V. LABEL THE DIAGRAM BELOW.
Salivary glands
Mouth
Esophagus
stomach
Liver
Pancreas
Gall Bladder
Small intestine
Small Intestine
Rectum
Large intestine
Appendix
PART 10. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – TRANSPORT
II. PARTS
1. HEART – pumps blood
a. ATRIA – upper
chambers
b. VENTRICLES – lower
chambers
c. VALVES – prevent
backflow of blood
d. SEPTUM – separates
left & right sides
2. BLOOD VESSELS
a. ARTERIES – thickest, carry
blood AWAY from the
heart
-AORTA – largest artery
-PULSE
-GREATEST BLOOD
PRESSURE
b. VEINS – carry blood to the
heart
-VALVES
-VENA CAVA – largest
c. CAPILLARIES – thinnest,
oxygen & carbon dioxide
are exchanged between
blood & cells, connect
arteries & veins
3. Label the right and left sides of the heart, label which sides
pumps oxygenated & deoxygenated blood, and label all parts
of the heart.
A. Aorta
RIGHT DEOXYGENATED
LEFT OXYGENATED
B. Pulmonary Artery
C. Pulmonary Vein
D. Left Atrium
E. Left Ventricle
F. Septum
G. Lower Vena Cava
H. Right Ventricle
I. Valve
J. Right Atrium
K. Upper vena cava
3. BLOOD - connective tissue
a. PLASMA – liquid, carries
materials
b. RED BLOOD CELLS contain
hemoglobin, carry oxygen
c. WHITE BLOOD CELLS – fight
disease
d. PLATELETS – blood clotting
Red Blood Cell
Plasma
Platelet
White blood Cell
III. BLOOD TYPES – depend on
antigens found on RBC’s
1. A = A antigens, anti–B
antibodies
2. B = B antigens, anti–A
antibodies
3. AB = A & B antigens, no
antibodies (universal acceptor)
4. O = no antigens, anti–A, anti-B
antibodies (universal donor)
a. Rh factor – extra proteins on
RBC’s
Rh + (have proteins), Rh –
(don’t have proteins)
PART 11. IMMUNE SYSTEM
I.
FUNCTION – defends the body against disease
Pathogen – disease causing organism
II. PARTS
•
1st Line of Defense: physical barriers (skin, saliva, tears, gastric juice…)
•
2nd Line: Inflammatory Response
•
3rd Line: Antibodies – produced by WBC’s -attach to pathogens, slow
them down
III. TYPES:
1. ACTIVE IMMUNITY – immune system produces own antibodies, permanent
•
a. by acquiring the disease (chicken
pox)
•
b. by receiving a vaccination (weak or
dead antigens injected into the
body)
2. PASSIVE IMMUNITY – receive antibodies from another organism, temporary
IV. Diseases
1. Infectious Disease =
• Caused by pathogen, can be spread
2. Noninfectious Disease =
• Not caused by pathogen, cannot be spread
3. ALLERGIES – reaction that occurs when the body is
sensitive to certain substances
1. Allergen – substance body is sensitive to
2. Body produces HISTAMINES (cause symptoms)
4. AIDS
• Caused by HIV virus
• Kills T- cells  destroys immune system
PART 12. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – Gas Exchange
II. PARTS
1. NASAL CAVITY
• a. mucus – moistens
air, traps materials
• b. cilia – filters air
• c. blood vessels – warm
air
2. PHARYNX - throat
3. LARYNX – vocal cords
(voice box)
5. TRACHEA – windpipe
made of rings of cartilage
6. BRONCHI – 2 tubes that
branch off trachea
7. ALVEOLI – air sacs
surrounded by capillaries
where oxygen & carbon
dioxide are exchanged by
diffusion
8. DIAPHRAGM – sheet of
muscle under lungs
III. LABEL THE DIAGRAM BELOW
A
B
F
C
G
D
H
I
E
J
A. Nasal cavity
B. Mouth
C. Larynx
D. Bronchi
E. Diaphragm
F. Pharynx
G. Trachea
H. Bronchi
I. Bronchial tube
J. Alveoli
IV. BREATHING
1. INHALATION (breathing in)
a. diaphragm contracts
(down)
b. air pressure decreases
2. EXHALATION (breathing out)
a. diaphragm relaxes (up)
b. air pressure increases
3. Breathing rate increases
when amount of carbon
dioxide in the blood
increases.
4. Label the BELL JAR below
A
B
C
D
A. Trachea
B. Bronchi
C. Alveoli
D. Diaphragm
PART 13. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – EXCRETION – removal of cellular
4. URINARY SYSTEM
(metabolic wastes)
• a. KIDNEYS – nephrons
II. PARTS
that filter the blood &
1. LIVER: Produces
maintain water balance 
UREA,
produces URINE (water,
DETOXIFICATION
urea, salt)
2. LUNGS – excrete CO2
• b. URETERS – carry urine
& H20
from kidneys to the bladder
3. SKIN
• c. URINARY BLADDER –
• a. excretes
stores urine
perspiration (water,
• d. URETHRA – carries
urea, salt)
urine out of the body
• b. maintains body
temperature
III. Label the parts of the urinary system.
A
A. Kidney
B. Ureter
B
C. Urinary bladder
C
D
D. Urethra
PART 14. NERVOUS SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
1. REGULATION
a. processes & sends out messages
b. control & coordination
c. helps to maintain homeostasis
II. PARTS
1.
What is a NEURON?
•
NERVE CELL
2. IMPULSE – message sent by neurons
a. STIMULUS – change in the
environment that starts an impulse
3. RECEPTOR – sense organs, pick up
stimuli (ears, eyes, nose, skin,
tongue)
4. EFFECTOR – parts of the body that
responds to a stimulus (MUSCLES
& GLANDS)
5. PARTS OF A NEURON
a. dendrites – branches at start of
neuron that pick up impulses
b. cell body (cyton) – contains
nucleus
c. axon – long single fiber that
carries impulse to end of neuron
(surrounded by myelin)
d. terminal branches – branches
at end of neuron
6. What is a SYNAPSE?
•
SPACE BETWEEN EACH
NEURON
7. NEUROTRANSMITTER –
substances released into a
synapse that “carries” impulse to
next cell
8. Label parts of the neuron below.
F
A. Dendrites
D. Terminal Branches
B. Cell body / Cyton E. Synapse
C. Axon
F. Schwann Cells
III. TYPES OF NEURONS
•
•
•
SENSORY NEURON – receptors  brain & spinal cord
INTERNEURONS – make up brain & spinal cord
MOTOR NEURONS – brain & spinal cord  effectors
IV. RELEX ARC (RSIME)
Receptor  Sensory Neuron  Interneuron  Motor Neuron  Effector
V. REFLEX
1. Reflex – involuntary response controlled by the spinal cord
VI. DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
– brain & spinal cord
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM – branching nerves
that carry messages to all
body parts
VII. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. BRAIN (3 parts) – protected by cranium
a. Cerebrum – largest
•
controls VOLUNTARY activities. the
senses, thinking, memory, language…
b. Cerebellum – back
•
controls BALANCE
c. Medulla – brain stem
•
controls all INVOLUNTARY activities
(heart beat, breathing, digestion…)
2. SPINAL CORD – protected by vertebrae
d. Label the parts of the central nervous
system below.
A. Cerebrum
B. Cerebellum
C. Medulla
D. Spinal Cord
PART 15. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
1. REGULATION - produces hormones that
control body functions
2. HORMONE
a. chemical produced by endocrine
glands
b. chemical messengers that travel
through the BLOODSTREAM
II. PARTS
1. HYPOTHALAMUS – part of brain
that, controls the pituitary gland
2. PITUITARY GLAND - in the brain
• secretes hormones that control other
glands
• secretes Growth hormone
3. THYROID – controls metabolism
4. PARATHYROIDS – controls calcium
levels
6. ADRENAL GLANDS – on top of
each kidney
• ADRENALINE – released in
times of stress (increases heart
rate, breathing rate…)
7. ISLETS OF LANGERHANS- on
pancreas
• INSULIN – decreases blood
sugar level
• GLUCAGON – increases blood
sugar level
8. OVARIES – female gonads
• ESTROGEN – secondary sec
characteristics
9. TESTES – male gonads
• TESTOSTERONE - secondary sex
characteristics
III. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
1. How endocrine glands work
2. A hormone causes a gland to produce
or stop producing another hormone
IV. LABEL THE DIAGRAM BELOW
A. Pituitary Gland
B. Thyroid
C. Parathyroid
D. Thymus
E. Adrenal Glands
F. Islets of Langerhans
G. Ovaries
H. Testes
PART 16. REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT
I. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. 1 parent
2. offspring identical to parent
3. MITOSIS = 1 cell  2 cells
II. MITOSIS – cell division
1. 1 cell  2 cells that have the SAME # OF
CHROMOSOMES as parent cell
2. asexual reproduction
3. production of ALL body cells EXCEPT sex cells
4. Growth and repair
III. STEPS OF MITOSIS:
IV. Label the steps of mitosis below.
1. INTERPHASE – chromosomes
replicate
A. Interphase
2. PROPHASE – nuclear
membrane disappears and
spindle fibers form
B. Prophase
3. METAPHASE – chromosomes
line up in middle of cell
C. Metaphase
4. ANAPHASE – chromosomes
separate and move away from
each other
D. Anaphase
5. TELOPHASE – nuclear
membrane starts to reform
• cytokinesis – cell membrane
E. Telophase
pinches in
V. PLANT CELL MITOSIS
1. no centrioles
2. CYTOKINESIS – cell plate
forms instead of cell membrane
pinching in
VI. TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. FISSION – equal division
(bacteria, ameba and
paramecium)
2. BUDDING – unequal
division (Yeast)
3. SPORULATION – spores
develop into new organism
(mold, mushrooms)
4. VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION – used by
plants (NO SEEDS)
-runners (strawberries),
buds/tubers (potatoes),
grafting (roses), bulbs
(onions)
V. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. 2 parents, each give sex cell
2. Offspring NOT identical to parents
3. FERTILIZATION = SPERM +
EGG  ZYGOTE
4. ZYGOTE DEVELOPS INTO EMBRYO
(1st 8 weeks)  FETUS
VI. MEIOSIS – cell division
1. 2 divisions (1  2  4)
2. for sexual reproduction
3. 4 new daughter cells with ½ the
number of chromosomes as
parent cell
4. TO PRODUCE SEX CELLS
ONLY (in ovaries & testes)
MALES = 4 SPERM
CELLS
FEMALE = 1 EGG + 3
POLAR BODIES
5. What type of organisms carry out external
fertilization?
• Aquatic (fish, frogs…)
6. Why do these organisms release many sex cells at
one time?
• To increase chance of fertilization
7. What type of organisms carry out internal fertilization?
• Terrestrial (live on land)
VII. Metamorphosis
• a. Complete = 4 stages (egg larva  pupa 
adult), butterfly
• b. Incomplete = 3 stages = egg  nymph, adult
PART 17. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
1. REPRODUCTION -the process
through which living things
Urinary bladder
produce new individuals of the
Vas Deferens
same kind
Vas Deferens
II. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
SPERM CELLS – male sex cells
Glands
1. TESTES -produce sperm cells and
testosterone
Penis
Gland
2. SCROTUM -external organ that
Testes
surrounds testes
3. SPERM DUCTS/VAS DEFERENS tubes that carry sperm to the
Urethra
penis
4. GLANDS -adds liquid to sperm
(semen)
5. PENIS –deposits sperm into female
6. URETHRA – tube in the penis
which transports urine & semen
III. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
EGGS – female sex cells
1. OVARIES - makes eggs and
estrogen
2. FALLOPIAN TUBES - (oviduct)
tubes in which an egg travels
through from ovaries to the
uterus
•
FERTILIZATION OCCURS
HERE
3. UTERUS - muscular organ where Cervix
zygote attaches and develops
into a baby
4. CERVIX - lower end of the uterus
5. VAGINA – birth canal, where
sperm is deposited
Oviduct /Fallopian Tube
Egg
(Ovulation)
Ovary
Uterus
Vagina
IV. MENSTRUAL CYCLE (28 days)
1. STEPS
a. Egg develops in ovary
b. OVULATION – egg released from ovary
c. Lining of uterus thickens with blood
d. NO FERTILIZATION  MENSTRUATION (uterus lining
sheds, egg leaves body)
V. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
1. FERTILIZATION: EGG + SPERM  ZYGOTE
(fertilized egg)
2. ZYGOTE  EMBRYO (8 weeks)  FETUS (after 8
weeks)
(BY CELL DIVISION)
Label the diagrams.
C
A
B
A. Fertilization
B. Zygote
C. mitosis
E
F
5. STRUCTURES FORMED
a. AMNIOTIC SAC – surrounds
fetus & contains amniotic
fluid that protects baby
b. PLACENTA – network of
blood vessels where
nutrients & wastes are
exchanged between the
mother’s blood & baby’s
blood by diffusion
c. UMBILICAL CORD – blood
vessels that connect the
fetus to the placenta
•
Carry nutrients & and
wastes to and from the
placenta
A. Amniotic Sac
B. Uterus
C. Cervix
D. Umbilical Cord
E. Placenta
F. fetus
IV. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS (FLOWERS)
1. PARTS OF A FLOWER
a. PETALS – colored leaves, attract
insects for
pollination
b. SEPALS – green leaves, protection
c. STAMEN – male reproductive
organ
• ANTHER – produces pollen
(sperm)
• FILAMENT – stem holds up anther
d. PISTIL – female reproductive organ
• STIGMA – sticky part that catches
pollen
• STYLE – long tube that brings
pollen to ovary
• OVARY – where eggs are
produced and stored
• OVULES – in ovary, contain eggs
10
11
1. anther
8. petal
2. filament
9. sepal
4. stigma
10. stamen
5. style
11. pistil
6. ovary
VI. HOW DO FLOWERS REPRODUCE?
1. POLLINATION - pollen lands
on stigma
a. self-pollination – pollen from one
flower lands on stigma of the same
flower (IDENTICAL)
b. cross pollination – pollen from one
flower lands on stigma of other flower
2. FERTILIZATION
1. pollen lands on stigma
2. pollen tube grows down
through the style and
carries pollen to ovary
3. sperm fertilizes egg in ovule
4. ovule  SEED (embryo)
5. ovary  FRUIT
3. SEEDS
• Embryo
• Seed coat (protects embryo)
• Stored food for embryo
4. GERMINATION – growth of plant embryo inside seed
(sprouting)
a. For germination to occur there must be enough
water, enough oxygen & right temperature
PART 18. GENETICS
I. GREGOR MENDEL – crossed pea plants to study heredity
passing on of traits)
II. CHROMOSOMES –in nucleus
• 1. consist of genes which contain genetic information (DNA)
• 2. sex chromosomes – determine sex of an organism
a. EGGS = X
SPERM = X or Y
b. FEMALE = XX
MALE = XY
1. GENES – 2 genes (ALLELES) for every trait (1 from each
parent)
2. DOMINANT GENE/TRAIT – stronger gene – CAPITAL
LETTER (T)
3. RECESSIVE GENE/TRAIT – weaker gene – lower case (t)
4. PHENOTYPE – physical appearance (what offspring look like)
5. GENOTYPE – genetic makeup
T = tall plant, t = short plant
GENES PHENOTYPE
TT
tt
Tt
GENOTYPE
Tall
Homozygous OR pure
dominant
Short
Homozygous OR pure
recessive
Tall
Heterozygous OR
hybrid
III. PUNNETT SQUARES
1. Cross a pure dominant tall plant with a hybrid
plant.
T
t
T
T
TT
TT
Tt
Tt
Phenotype =
100% tall
Genotype =
50% pure dominant
50% hybrid
2. B = Brown eyes, b = blue eyes
Cross a blue eyed person with a hybrid brown
eyed person. Give the phenotypes & genotypes
of their offspring.
b
b
B
Bb
Bb
b
bb
bb
Phenotype =
50% brown eyes
50% blue eyes
Genotype =
50% pure recessive
50% hybrid
3. G = green, g = yellow
Cross a yellow plant with a pure dominant plant.
Give the phenotypes & genotypes for all
offspring.
G
g
g
Gg
Gg
Phenotype =
100% green
Gg
Genotype =
100% hybrid
G Gg
IV. MULTIPLE ALLELES – MORE THAN 2
GENES AVAILABLE FOR A TRAIT
1. Example: BLOOD TYPES – 3 alleles
a. A & B = both dominant
b. O = recessive
BLOOD TYPE
A
B
AB
O
ALLELES
AA or AO
BB or BO
AB
OO
2. Cross a person with blood type O with
a person who is pure for blood type B.
What blood types will their children
have?
O
O
B
BO
BO
B
BO
BO
All of their
children will
have blood
type B.
V. MUTATION – change in a gene that may cause a new trait
(good or bad)
• a. in SEX CELLS  can be passed on to offspring
• b. Examples: sickle cell anemia
VI. APPLIED GENETICS
• 1. Selective Breeding: crossing organisms with desirable traits
to produce offspring with those traits
• a. Hybridization (different) b. Inbreeding (same/similar)
• 2. Genetic Engineering: Recombinant DNA made simple
organism carried out function controlled by
• complex organisms cut DNA (Example: Insulin producing
bacteria)
• 3. Cloning: producing organism (CLONE) that is genetically
identical to parent
VI. PEDIGREE
CHARTS trace a genetic
trait in a family
1. Example:
2. The pedigree chart below traces the
appearance of earlobes through 3
generations of a family.
Based on the chart, attached earlobes is a
a. dominant trait
b. recessive trait
c. mutated trait
d. trait common in females
PART 19. PLANTS
I. PARTS OF PLANTS
1. ROOTS: absorb water &
dissolved minerals, anchor
plant, store food
b. root hairs – increase
surface area for water
absorption
2. STEM
a. supports plant, hold up
leaves
b. contains VASCULAR
TISSUE
XYLEM – carries water up
PHLOEM – carries food
everywhere
3. LEAVES – where PHOTOSYNTHESIS
occurs
a. chloroplasts – contain chlorophyll
(green pigment which absorbs light)
b. Equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
(carbon (water) (glucose) (oxygen)
dioxide)
c. SUNLIGHT = energy source
d. OXYGEN = waste product that is
released into the air (oxygen we
breathe)
TROPISM – how a plant responds to a
stimulus
• POSITIVE = toward stimulus
(Example: light) NEGATIVE = away
from stimulus
PART 20. ECOLOGY
I. ECOSYSTEMS
1. ECOSYSTEM:
•
all the living & nonliving things in an environment
a. BIOTIC FACTORS – living things
b. ABIOTIC FACTORS – nonliving things
2. COMMUNITY – all of the different LIVING things in an
ecosystem
3. POPULATION – organisms of the same SPECIES living in a
community
4. NICHE
a. the role an organism plays
b. what it needs, what it eats, where it lives, how it behaves
5. HABITAT – where an organism lives
II. LIVING THINGS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
1. PRODUCERS
• autotrophs (plants),
• get energy from the SUN
• GREATEST AMOUNT OF ENERGY IN THE ECOSYSTEM
2. CONSUMERS – heterotrophs
a. HERBIVORES – eat producers (plants)
b. CARNIVORES – eat other animals
c. OMNIVORES – eat both plants and animals
d. SCAVENGERS – eat dead organisms
3. DECOMPOSERS
a. break down dead organisms into small materials & place them back
into the environment to be used again
b. BACTERIA, MUSHROOMS
4. PREDATOR – living thing that hunts and kills other living things as food
5. PREY – organisms killed by predators
III. FOOD CHAIN - shows how much ENERGY is transferred
1.
PRODUCER  PRIMARY CONSUMER  SECONDARY CONSUMER
(herbivore or omnivore)
(carnivore or omnivore)
2. Label the parts of the food chain below.
a.
producer
b.
c.
Secondary
Primary
consumer consumer
d.
Tertiary
consumer
e.
carnivore
(herbivore)
3. Where is the most energy found in this food
chain?
Plants
IV. FOOD WEB – overlapping food chains
1. Identify the following organisms in the food
web.
a. Producers:
Grasses, bean plants
b. Herbivores:
Rabbits, caterpillars
c. Carnivores:
Frogs, trout, snakes,
hawks, foxes
d. decomposers:
bacteria
V. ENERGY PYRAMID
Use the energy pyramid at the right to answer the questions
below.
a. Which level contains the greatest amount of energy?
•
GREEN PLANTS
b. What happens to the amount of energy as it moves up the
pyramid?
•
IT DECREASES
c. Which organism is an herbivore?
•
MICE
VI. SYMBIOSIS
1. Relationship between 2 organisms where one lives
on, in, or near the other
2. 3 types:
a. COMMENSALISM = 1 benefits, other not
harmed/unaffected (+, -)
-mites on eyebrows
b. MUTUALISM = both benefit (+, +)
-bacteria in our intestines
c. PARASITISM = PARASITE benefits, HOST is harmed
(+, -)
-fleas on dogs
VII. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
1. When one community replaces another until a stable
community exists
2. CLIMAX COMMUNITY – stable community, end of succession
Pioneer
organisms
Climax
community
VIII. CYCLES
1. Water Cycle (evaporation, condensation, precipitation, transpiration)
2. Carbon & Oxygen Cycle (respiration & photosynthesis
3. Nitrogen Cycle (Nitrogen changed into usable forms)
PART 21. EVOLUTION
I. EVOLUTION – change in a species
over time
II. EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
1.FOSSILS – remains of living things
2.a. Law of Superposition – younger
layers of sedimentary rock lay on top of
older ones
b. In the diagram below, which fossil:
•
•
•
•
OLDEST = A
YOUNGEST = C
MOST COMPLEX = C
MOST SIMPLE = A
2. ANATOMICAL EVIDENCE
a. Homologous structures – structures
that evolved from similar body parts
(similar structure BUT different function)
b. Examples: human arm, whale flipper,
dog leg, bat wing
3. EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
a. young embryos of different organisms
are similar
4. CHEMICAL EVIDENCE
a. materials that make up
organisms are similar
(proteins, DNA)
III. CHARLES DARWIN
1. CHARLES DARWIN
a. Galapagos Islands
b. NATURAL SELECTION
2. NATURAL SELECTION –
• those organisms best adapted to their
environment will survive & reproduce
3. ADAPTATION – a change that helps an organism
better adapt to an environment  survive
4. BASED ON 5 MAIN POINTS
a. OVERPRODUCTION – organisms produce
too many offspring  competition  natural
selection\
b. COMPETETION – limited resources 
organisms compete  natural selection
c. VARIATION – differences between organisms
 best adapted will survive & reproduce
d. SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST – those best
adapted will survive & reproduce
e. SPECIATION – over time favorable
adaptations survive & unfavorable
disappear  new species
IV. GRADUALISM:
• evolution happens slowly over time
V. PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM:
• long periods of time with no change
interrupted by short periods of
change