Introduction to Psychology: Kellogg Community College
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Chapter 1
Introducing Psychology and
Research Methods
Introduction to Psychology: Kellogg Community College
Chapter 1
What Is Psychology?
• Psychology
– Psyche: Mind
– Logos: Knowledge or study
• Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes
– Behavior: Overt; i.e., can be directly observed (crying)
– Mental Processes: Covert; i.e., cannot be directly
observed (remembering); private, internal
• Empirical Evidence: Information gathered from direct
observation
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What Might a Psychologist Research?
• Development: Course of human growth and
development
• Learning: How and why it occurs in humans and animals
• Personality: Traits, motivations, and individual
differences
• Sensation and Perception: How we come to know the
world through our five senses
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What Might a Psychologist Research?(cont’d)
• Social: Human and social behavior
• Cultural: How culture affects human behavior
• Cognitive: How reasoning, problem solving, and other
mental processes relate to human behavior
• Evolutionary: How our behavior is guided by patterns
that evolved during human history
Figure 1.3a
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FIGURE 1.3 (a) Specialties in psychology. Percentages are approximate. Any
particular psychologist might do several of these activities during a work week (APA,
1998). As you can see, most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in
applied settings.
Figure 1.3b
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FIGURE 1.3. (b) Where psychologists work. Any particular psychologist might do several
of these activities during a work week (APA, 1998). As you can see, most psychologists
specialize in applied areas and work in applied settings.
Figure 1.3c
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FIGURE 1.3 (c) This chart shows the main activities psychologists do at work. Any particular
psychologist might do several of these activities during a work week (APA, 1998). As you can
see, most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in applied settings.
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What Are the Goals of Psychology?
• Description of Behaviors: Naming and classifying various
observable, measurable behaviors
• Understanding: The causes of behavior(s)
• Prediction: Forecasting behavior accurately
• Control: Altering conditions that influence behaviors
– Positive Use: To control unwanted behaviors, (e.g.,
smoking, tantrums, etc.)
– Negative Use: To control peoples’ behaviors without
their knowledge
Table 1.1
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Introduction to Psychology: Kellogg Community College
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History of Psychology (Brief!): Beginnings
• Wilhelm Wundt: “Father” of Psychology
– 1879: Set up first lab to study conscious experience
– Stimulus: Any physical energy that affects the person
and provokes a response
– Introspection: Looking inward (i.e., examining and
reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc.)
– Wundt’s ideas brought to the U.S. by Tichener and
renamed Structuralism
– Structuralists disagreed, and no way to prove who
was correct!
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History of Psychology: William James
• William James (American) and Functionalism
– How the mind functions to help us adapt to our
environment
– Functionalists admired Darwin and his theory of
Natural Selection: Animals keep features through
evolution that help them adapt to environments
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History of Psychology:
Behaviorism and Cognitive Behaviorism
• Behaviorism: Watson and Skinner
– Psychology must study observable behavior
objectively
– Watson studied Little Albert with Rosalie Raynor;
Skinner studied animals almost exclusively
• Cognitive: Study thoughts, memory, expectations,
perceptions, and other mental processes
• Cognitive Behaviorism: Ellis and Bandura
– Our thoughts influence our behaviors; used often in
treatment of depression
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History of Psychology: Gestalt
• “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
• Key names: Wertheimer, Perls
Figure 1.2
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FIGURE 1.2 The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles. However, as
the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful tendency to form
meaningful patterns. Because of this tendency, you will probably see a triangle in this
design, even though it is only an illusion. Your whole perceptual experience exceeds the
sum of its parts.
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History of Psychology: Freud
• Psychoanalytic: Freud
– Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious
wishes, thoughts, and desires, especially sex and
aggression.
– Freud performed dream analysis and was an
interactionist (combination of our biology and
environment make us who we are).
– Recent research has hypothesized that our
unconscious mind is partially responsible for our
behaviors.
• Repression: Unconscious thoughts held out of
awareness because they are threatening
• All thoughts and actions are determined; nothing is an
accident
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History of Psychology: Humanism
• Humanism: Rogers and Maslow
– Goal of psychology is to study unique aspects of the
person; focuses on subjective human experience.
– Each person has innate goodness and is able to
make free choices (contrast with Skinner and Freud).
• Maslow: Self-actualization: Develop one’s full potential
and become the best person you can be
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Psychology Today
• Biopsychology: Our behavior can be explained through
physiological processes
– Uses brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI, PET)
– Looks at neurotransmitters
– Treats psychological problems with medications
• Positive Psychology: Study of human strengths, virtues,
and optimal behavior
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Cultural Awareness
• Many thoughts and behaviors are influenced by our
culture.
• Psychologists need to be aware of the impact cultural
diversity may have on our behaviors.
• What is acceptable in one culture might be unacceptable
in another.
• Cultural Relativity: Behavior must be judged relative to
the values of the culture in which it occurs.
• Social Norms: Rules that define acceptable and
expected behavior for members of various groups.
Table 1.3
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Introduction to Psychology: Kellogg Community College
Chapter 1
Many Flavors of Psychologists
• Psychologists: Usually have masters or doctorate.
Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of
psychology.
– Clinical Psychologists: Treat psychological problems
or do research on therapies and mental illnesses
– Counseling Psychologists: Treat milder problems,
such as poor adjustment at work or at a school
• Psychiatrists: MD; usually use medications to treat
problems. Generally do not have extensive training in
providing “talk” therapy.
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Many Flavors of Psychologists (cont’d)
• Psychoanalysts: Receive additional Freudian
psychoanalytic training post-Ph.D. or M.D. at an institute.
• Counselors: Advisers who help solve problems with
marriage, career, school, or work
• Psychiatric Social Workers: Many have masters degrees
and perform psychotherapy.
– Use social science principles.
– Presently a very popular profession.
• Not all psychologists perform therapy!
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The Scientific Method
• Six Basic Elements
– Observing
– Defining a problem
– Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess that can
be tested)
– Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
– Publishing results
– Building a theory
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Some Terms
• Hypothesis: Testable hunch or educated guess about
behavior
• Operational Definition: States exact procedures used to
represent a concept. Allows abstract ideas to be tested
in real-world terms.
Figure 1.4
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FIGURE 1.4 Operational definitions are used to link concepts with concrete observations. Do
you think the examples given are reasonable operational definitions of frustration and
aggression? Operational definitions vary in how well they represent concepts. For this
reason, many different experiments may be necessary to draw clear conclusions about
hypothesized relationships in psychology.
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Naturalistic Observation
• Observing a person or an animal in the environment in
which they/it live(s)
• Problems
– Observer Effect: Changes in a subject’s behavior
caused by an awareness of being observed
– Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what
they expect to see or record only selected details
– Anthropomorphic Error: Attributing human thoughts,
feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of
explaining their behavior (e.g., “Anya my cat is acting
like that because she’s feeling depressed today.”)
Figure 1.5
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FIGURE 1.5 Psychologists use the logic of science to answer questions about behavior. Specific
hypotheses can be tested in a variety of ways, including naturalistic observation, correlational
studies, controlled experiments, clinical studies, and the survey method. Psychologists revise
their theories to reflect the evidence they gather. New or revised theories then lead to new
observations, problems, and hypotheses.
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Correlations and Relationships
• Definition: Existence of a consistent, systematic
relationship between two events, measures, or variables.
• Coefficient of Correlation: Statistic ranging from –1.00 to
+1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the
relationship.
– Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the
stronger the relationship.
– Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship
between the variables.
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Correlations and Relationships (cont’d)
• Positive Correlation: Increases in one variable are
matched by increases in the other variable.
• Negative Correlation: Increases in one variable are
matched by decreases in the other variable.
• Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just
because two variables are related does NOT mean that
one variable causes the other to occur.
Figure 1.7
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FIGURE 1.7 The correlation coefficient tells how strongly two measures are related. These
graphs show a range of relationships between two measures, A and B. If a correlation is
negative, increases in one measure are associated with decreases in the other. (As B gets
larger, A gets smaller.) In a positive correlation, increases in one measure are associated with
increases in the other. (As B gets larger, A gets larger.) The center-left graph (“medium negative
relationship”) might result from comparing anxiety level (B) with test scores (A): Higher anxiety is
associated with lower scores. The center graph (“no relationship”) would result from plotting a
person’s shoe size (B) and his or her IQ (A). The center-right graph (“medium positive
relationship”) could be a plot of grades in high school (B) and grades in college (A) for a group
of students: Higher grades in high school are associated with higher grades in college.
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Experiments
• To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct
experiments.
• A formal trial to confirm/disconfirm a hypothesis
– Directly vary a condition you might think affects
behavior.
– Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all
ways except the condition you are varying.
– Record whether varying the condition has any effect
on behavior.
Figure 1.1
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FIGURE 1.1 Results of an empirical study. The graph shows that horn honking by frustrated
motorists becomes more likely as air temperature increases. This suggests that physical
discomfort is associated with interpersonal hostility. (Data from Kenrick & MacFarlane, 1986.)
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Variables
• Definition: Any condition that can change and that might
affect the outcome of an experiment
• Independent Variable: Condition(s) altered by the
experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or
value. These are suspected causes for behavioral
differences.
• Dependent Variable: Demonstrates results of the
experiment. Condition is affected by independent
variable.
• Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher
wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the
experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the
experiment).
Figure 1.8
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FIGURE 1.8 Elements of a simple psychological experiment to assess the effects of music during
study on test scores.
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Groups
• Experimental Group: The group of subjects that gets the
independent variable.
• Control Group: The group of subjects that does NOT get
the independent variable.
• Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of
being in either the experimental or control group.
Figure 1.9
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FIGURE 1.9 Experimental control is achieved by balancing extraneous variables for the
experimental group and the control group. For example, the average age (A), education (B), and
intelligence (C) of group members could be made the same for both groups. Then we could
apply the independent variable to the experimental group. If their behavior (the dependent
variable) changes (in comparison with the control group), the change must be caused by the
independent variable.
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Placebo Effects
• Definition: A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline)
• Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from
expectations that a drug or other treatment will have
some effect; the belief that one has taken an active drug
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Experiment Types
• Single Blind: Only the subjects have no idea whether
they are in the experimental or control group
• Double Blind: The subjects AND the experimenters have
no idea whether the subjects are in the control or
experimental group
– Best type of experiment if properly set up
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Experimenter Effects
• Definition: Changes in behavior caused by the
unintended influence of the experimenter
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to
act in ways to make the prediction come true
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The Clinical Method
• Case Study: In-depth focus of all aspects of a single
subject
• Natural Clinical Tests: Natural events, such as accidents,
that provide psychological data
Figure 1.10
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FIGURE 1.10 Some of the earliest information on the effects of damage to frontal areas of
the brain came from a case study of the accidental injury of Phineas Gage.
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The Survey Method
• Definition: Using public polling techniques to answer
psychological questions
• Representative Sample: Small group that accurately
reflects a larger population
– Population: Entire group of animals or people
belonging to a particular category (e.g., all married
women)
• Courtesy Bias: Problem in research; a tendency to give
“polite” or socially desirable answers
Figure 1.11
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FIGURE 1.11 If you were conducting a survey in which a person’s height might be an important
variable, the non-random sample would be very unrepresentative. The random sample, selected
using a table of random numbers, better represents the group as a whole.
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Critical Thinking
• Ability to analyze, evaluate, compare, critique, and
synthesize information
• Based on four principles
– Few truths transcend the need for empirical testing
– Judging the quality of evidence is crucial
– Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically
make an idea true
– Critical thinking requires an open mind
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How to Critically Evaluate New Information
• Ask the following:
– What claims are being made?
– What test (if any) of these claims has been made?
– Who did the test; how good is the evidence?
– What was the nature and quality of the tests? Are
they credible and can they be repeated?
– How reliable and trustworthy were the investigators?
– How much credibility can the claim be given?
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Pseudo-Psychologies
• Pseudo means “false.” Any unfounded “system” that
resembles psychology and is NOT based on scientific
testing
– Palmistry: Lines on your hands (palms) predict future
and reveal personality
– Phrenology: Personality traits revealed by shape of
skull and bumps on your head
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Pseudo-Psychologies (cont’d)
• Graphology: Personality revealed by your handwriting.
• Astrology: The positions of the stars and planets at birth
determine your personality and affect your behavior.
– Extremely popular today (“What’s your sign?”).
• Uncritical Acceptance: Tendency to believe positive or
flattering descriptions of yourself
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Pseudo-Psychologies Concluded
• Fallacy of Positive Instances: When we remember or
notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the
rest.
• Barnum Effect: Always have a little something for
everyone. Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes,
etc. are so general that something in them will always
apply to any one person!
• (e.g., “Crossing Over with John Edward”)
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Separating Fact from Fiction
•
•
•
•
Be skeptical.
Consider the source of information.
Ask yourself, “Was there a control group?”
Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and
causation (are claims based on correlational results yet
passed off as causations?).
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Separating Fact from Fiction (cont’d)
• Be sure to distinguish between observation and
inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know why he
is crying?).
• Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated
by monetary reasons.
• “For example” is no proof, i.e., one example is not proof