Effective writing instruction
1
Research-based Resources
Bright, R. (1995). Writing instruction in the intermediate grades: What is said, what is done, what is
understood. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Fearn, L., & Farnan, N. (1998). Writing effectively: Helping children master the conventions of writing.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2005). Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with learning
difficulties. Baltimore: Brookes.
Indrisano, R., & Squire, J. R. (Eds.) (2000). Perspectives on writing: Research, theory, and practice.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Nelson, N. W., Bahr, C. B., & Van Meter, A. M. (2004). The writing lab approach to language instruction
and intervention. Baltimore: Brookes.
Ray, K. W. (1999). Wondrous words: Writers and writing in the elementary classroom. Urbana, IL:
National Council of Teachers of English.
Ray, K. W., Laminack, L. (2001). Writing workshop: Working through the hard parts (and they're all hard).
Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Somers, A. B. (1999). Teaching poetry in high school. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of
English.
Troia, G. A. (Ed.). (2009). Instruction and assessment for struggling writers: Evidence-based practices.
New York: Guilford Press.
Troia, G. A., Shankland, R. K., & Heintz, A. (Eds.). (2010). Putting writing research into practice:
Applications for teacher professional development. New York: Guilford Press.
Venezky, R. L. (1999). The American way of spelling: The structure and origins of American English
orthography. New York: Guilford Press.
Wood, K. D., & Harmon, J. M. (2001). Strategies for integrating reading and writing in middle and high
school classrooms. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.
Young, A. (2002). Teaching writing across the curriculum (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Effective writing instruction
References
Aronson, E., & Patnoe, S. (1997). The jigsaw classroom: Building cooperation in the classroom (2nd ed.).
New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Atwell, N. (1998). In the middle: New understandings about writing, reading, and learning. Portsmouth,
NH: Boynton/Cook.
Ballard, K. D., & Glynn, T. (1975). Behavioral self-management in story writing with elementary school
children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 387-398.
Beach, R., & Friedrich, T. (2006). Response to writing. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald
(Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 222-234). New York: Guilford.
Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2000). Words their way: Word study for
phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Benson, B. J., & Campbell, H. M. (2009). Assessment of student writing with curriculum-based
measurement. In G. A. Troia (Ed.), Instruction and assessment for struggling writers: Evidencebased practices (pp. 337-357). New York: Guilford.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written expression. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bourassa, D. C., & Treiman, R. (2001). Spelling development and disability: The importance of linguistic
factors. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32, 172–181.
Calkins, L. M. (1994). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Carnine, D. W., Silbert, J., & Kame’enui, E. J. (1997). Direct instruction reading. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merrill.
Carr, E., & Ogle, D. M. (1987). K-W-L plus: A strategy for comprehension and summarization. Journal of
Reading, 30, 626–631.
Clare, L., Valdes, R., & Patthey-Chavez, G. G. (2000). Learning to write in urban elementary and middle
schools: An investigation of teachers' written feedback on student compositions (Center for the
Study of Evaluation Technical Report No. 526). Los Angeles: National Center for Research on
Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
Cox, C. (1996). Teaching language arts: A student and response centered classroom. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
2
Effective writing instruction
3
Culham, R. (2003). 6 + 1 traits of writing: The complete guide grades 3 and up. New York: Scholastic.
Cunningham, P. M. (2000). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing (3rd ed.). New York: Addison
Wesley Longman.
Cutler, L., & Graham, S. (2008). Primary grade writing instruction: A national survey. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 100, 907-919.
Daiute, C. (1986). Physical and cognitive factors in revising: Insights from studies with computers.
Research in the Teaching of English, 20, 141-159.
De La Paz, S. (2007). Managing cognitive demands for writing: Comparing the effects of instructional
components in strategy instruction. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning
Difficulties, 23, 249-266.
De La Paz, S., Swanson, P. N., & Graham, S. (1998). The contribution of executive control to the revising
by students with writing and learning difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 448–460.
Dobson, K. S. (Ed.) (2001). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Elbow, P. (1998a). Writing without teachers (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Elbow, P. (1998b). Writing with power: Techniques for mastering the writing process (2nd ed.). New York:
Oxford University Press.
Ellis, E. S., & Friend, P. (1991). Adolescents with learning disabilities. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Learning
about learning disabilities (pp. 505–561). San Diego: Academic Press.
Fernandez, C., & Chokshi, S. (2002). A practical guide to translating lesson study for a U.S. setting. Phi
Delta Kappan, 84(2), 128-134.
Fitzgerald, J. (1987). Research on revision in writing. Review of Educational Research, 57, 481-506.
Fitzgerald, J., & Shanahan, T. (2000). Reading and writing relations and their development. Educational
Psychologist, 35(1), 39-51.
Fitzgerald, J., & Stamm, C. (1990). Effects of group conferences on first graders’ revision in writing.
Written Communication, 7, 96-135.
Fitzgerald, J., & Teasley, A. B. (1983, November). Effects of instruction in narrative structure on children’s
writing. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Reading Conference, Austin, TX.
Effective writing instruction
4
Fletcher, R. J. (1996). Breathing in, breathing out: Keeping a writer's notebook. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Gearhart, M. (2009). Classroom portfolio assessment for writing. In G. A. Troia (Ed.), Instruction and
assessment for struggling writers: Evidence-based practices (pp. 311-336). New York: Guilford.
Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2001). Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: A metaanalysis. The Elementary School Journal, 101, 251-272.
Graham, S. (1997). Executive control in the revising of students with learning and writing difficulties.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 223-234.
Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 78–98.
Graham, S. (2000). Should the natural learning approach replace spelling instruction? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 92, 235–247.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (1989a). Components analysis of cognitive strategy instruction: Effects on
learning disabled students’ compositions and self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology,
81, 353-361.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (1989b). Improving learning disabled students’ skills at composing essays:
Self-instructional strategy training. Exceptional Children, 56, 201-214.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2000). The role of self-regulation and transcription skills in writing and writing
development. Educational Psychologist, 35, 3-12.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2005). Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with learning
difficulties. Baltimore: Brookes.
Graham, S., Harris, K. R., Fink, B., & MacArthur, C. A. (2003). Primary grade teachers’ instructional
adaptations for struggling writers: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 279292.
Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Loynachan, C. (1993). The basic spelling vocabulary list. Journal of
Educational Research, 86, 363–368.
Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Loynachan, C. (1994). The spelling for writing list. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 27, 210–214.
Effective writing instruction
5
Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Mason, L. (2005). Improving the writing performance, knowledge, and selfefficacy of struggling young writers: The effects of self-regulated strategy development.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30, 207-241.
Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Troia, G. A. (1998). Writing and self-regulation: Cases from the self-regulated
strategy development model. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Developing selfregulated learners: From teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 20-41). New York: Guilford
Press.
Graham, S. & MacArthur, C. A. (1988). Improving learning disabled students’ skills at revising essays
produced on a word processor: Self-instructional strategy training. Journal of Special Education,
22, 133-152.
Graham, S., MacArthur, C. A., & Schwartz, S. S. (1995). Effects of goal setting and procedural facilitation
on the revising behavior and writing performance of students with writing and learning problems.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 230-240.
Graham, S., MacArthur, C. A., Schwartz, S. S., & Page-Voth, V. (1992). Improving the compositions of
students with learning disabilities using a strategy involving product and process goal setting.
Exceptional Children, 58, 322-334.
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in
middle and high schools—A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC:
Alliance for Excellent Education.
Graham, S., & Weintraub, N. (1996). A review of handwriting research: Progress and prospects from
1980 to 1994. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 7–87.
Graves, D. H. (1994). A fresh look at writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Hamilton, R. A., Scott, D., & MacDougall, M. P. (2007). Assessing the effectiveness of self-talk
interventions on endurance performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19, 226-239.
Harris, A. J., & Sipay, E. R. (1985). How to increase reading ability: A guide to developmental and
remedial methods. New York: Longman.
Effective writing instruction
6
Harris, K. R. (1986). Self-monitoring of attentional behavior versus self-monitoring of productivity: Effects
on on-task behavior and academic response rate among learning disabled children. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 19, 417-423.
Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and selfregulation. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Hayes, J. R., Flower, L. S., Schriver, K., Stratman, J., & Carey, L. (1987). Cognitive processes in revision.
In S. Rosenberg (Ed.), Reading, writing, and language learning: Advances in applied
psycholinguistics (Vol. II, pp. 176-240). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Knapp, M. S. (Ed.). (1995). Teaching for meaning in high-poverty classrooms. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Lewis, C. C. (2002). Lesson study: A handbook of teacher-led instructional change. Philadelphia:
Research for Better Schools, Inc.
Lewis, C. C., & Tsuchida, I. (1998). A lesson is like a swiftly flowing river: Research lessons and the
improvement of Japanese education. American Educator, 51, 14-17, 50-52.
Lipson, M. Y., Mosenthal, J., Daniels, P., & Woodside-Jiron, H. (2000). Process writing in the classrooms
of eleven fifth-grade teachers with different orientations to teaching and learning. The Elementary
School Journal, 101, 209-231.
Lloyd, J. W., Bateman, D. F., Landrum, T. J., & Hallahan, D. P. (1989). Self-recording of attention versus
productivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 315-323.
Loucks-Horsley, S., & Matsumoto, C. (1999). Research on professional development for teachers of
mathematics and science: The state of the scene. School Science and Mathematics, 99, 258271.
Maag, J. W., Reid, R., & DiGangi, S. A. (1993). Differential effects of self-monitoring attention, accuracy,
and productivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 329-344.
MacArthur, C. A. (2006). The effects of new technologies on writing and writing processes. In C. A.
MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 248-262). New
York: Guilford.
Effective writing instruction
7
MacArthur, C. A., Ferretti, R. P., Okolo, C. M., & Cavalier, A. R. (2001). Technology applications for
students with literacy problems: A critical review. The Elementary School Journal, 101, 273-301.
MacArthur, C. A., & Graham, S. (1987). Learning disabled students’ composing with three methods:
Handwriting, dictation, and word processing. Journal of Special Education, 21, 22-42.
MacArthur, C. A., Schwartz, S. S., & Graham, S. (1991). Effects of a reciprocal peer revision strategy in
special education classrooms. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 6, 201-210.
Manning, B. H., & Payne, B. D. (1996). Self-talk for teachers and students: Metacognitive strategies for
personal and classroom use. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Martin, N. M., & Certo, J. L. (2008, February). Truth or tale? The efficacy of teacher-student writing
conferences. Paper given at the third Writing Research across Borders conference, Santa
Barbara, CA.
McCutchen, D. (1995). Cognitive processes in children’s writing: Developmental and individual
differences. Issues in Education: Contributions from Educational Psychology, 1, 123-160.
McGinley, W. J., & Denner, P. R. (1987). Story impressions: A pre-reading/writing activity. Journal of
Reading, 31, 248–253.
McMaster, K., & Espin, C. (2007). Technical features of curriculum-based measurement in writing: A
literature review. Journal of Special Education, 41, 68-84.
Mulcahy, R., Marfo, K., Peat, D. & Andrews, J. (1986). SPELT: A strategies program for effective learning
and thinking. Calgary: University of Alberta.
Neubert, G. A., & McNelis, S. J. (1986). Improving writing in the disciplines. Educational Leadership,
43(7), 54-58.
Nichol, J., Power, B. M., & Hubbard, R. S. (2001). When writing conferences don’t work: Students’ retreat
from teacher agenda. Language Arts, 79, 136-147.
Nolet, V. (1992). Classroom-based measurement and portfolio assessment. Diagnostique, 18, 5-26.
Ogle, D. M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading
Teacher, 39, 564–570.
Olinghouse, N. G., & Santangelo, T. (2010). Assessing the writing of struggling learners. Focus on
Exceptional Children, 43(4), 1-27.
Effective writing instruction
8
Page-Voth, V., & Graham, S. (1999). Effects of goal setting and strategy use on the writing performance
and self-efficacy of students with writing and learning problems. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 91, 230-240.
Persky, H. R., Daane, M. C., & Jin, Y. (2003). The nation’s report card: Writing 2002. U.S. Department of
Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Pritchard, R. J., & Honeycutt, R. L. (2006). The process approach to writing instruction: Examining its
effectiveness. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing
research (pp. 275-290). New York: Guilford.
Purcell-Gates, V., Duke, N. K., & Martineau, J. A. (2007). Learning to read and write genre-specific texts:
Roles of authentic experience and explicit teaching. Reading Research Quarterly, 42, 8-45.
Raskind, M. H., & Higgins, E. L. (1995). Effects of speech synthesis on the proofreading efficiency of
postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 141-158.
Raskind, M. H., & Higgins, E. L. (1999). Speaking to read: The effects of speech recognition technology
on the reading and spelling performance of children with learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia,
49, 251-281.
Rogers, L. A., & Graham, S. (2008). A meta-analysis of single subject design writing intervention
research. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 879-906.
Rosenbaum, M. S., & Drabman, R. S. (1979). Self-control training in the classroom: A review and critique.
Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 12, 467-485.
Salahu-Din, D., Persky, H., and Miller, J. (2008). The nation’s report card: Writing 2007 (NCES 2008468). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences,
U.S. Department of Education.
Sawyer, R. J., Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (1992). Direct teaching, strategy instruction, and strategy
instruction with explicit self-regulation: Effects on the composition skills and self-efficacy of
students with learning disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 340-352.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1983). The development of evaluative, diagnostic and remedial
capabilities in children’s composing. In M. Martlew (Ed.), The psychology of written language:
Development and educational perspectives (pp. 67-95). London: Wiley.
Effective writing instruction
9
Schunk, D. H., & Swartz, C. W. (1993a). Goals and progress feedback: Effects on self-efficacy and writing
achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 337-354.
Schunk, D. H., & Swartz, C. W. (1993b). Writing strategy instruction with gifted students: Effects of goals
and feedback on self-efficacy and skills. Roeper Review, 15, 225-230.
Singer, B. D., & Bashir, A. S. (1999). What are executive functions and self-regulation and what do they
have to do with language-learning disorders? Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in
Schools, 30, 265–273.
Smagorinsky, P. (1987). Graves revisited: A look at the methods and conclusions of the New Hampshire
study. Written Communication, 9, 331-342.
Spandel, V. (2001). Creating writers through 6-trait writing assessment and instruction (3rd ed.). New
York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Sperling, M. (1996). Revisiting the writing-speaking connection: Challenges for research on writing and
writing instruction. Review of Educational Research, 66, 53-86.
Stoddard, B., & MacArthur, C. A. (1993). A peer editor strategy: Guiding learning-disabled students in
response and revision. Research in the Teaching of English, 27, 76-103.
Stokes, L. (2001). Lessons from an inquiring school: Forms of inquiry and conditions for teacher learning.
In A. Lieberman (Ed.), Teachers caught in the action: Professional development that matters (pp.
141-158). New York: Teachers College Press.
Sykes, G. (1999). Teacher and student learning: Strengthening their connections. In L. Darling-Hammond
& G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice (pp.151179). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Taylor, B. M., Pearson, P. D., Clark, K., & Walpole, S. (2000). Effective schools and accomplished
teachers: Lessons about primary-grade reading instruction in low-income schools. The
Elementary School Journal, 101, 121-165.
Templeton, S., & Morris, D. (1999). Questions teachers ask about spelling. Reading Research Quarterly,
34, 102–112.
Troia, G. A. (2002). Teaching writing strategies to children with disabilities: Setting generalization as the
goal. Exceptionality, 10, 249–269.
Effective writing instruction
10
Troia, G. A. (2006). Writing instruction for students with learning disabilities. In C. A. MacArthur, S.
Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 324-336). New York: Guilford.
Troia, G. A., & Graham, S. (2003). Effective writing instruction across the grades: What every educational
consultant should know. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 14, 75–89.
Troia, G. A., Lin, S. C., Cohen, S., & Monroe, B. W. (2011). A year in the writing workshop: Linking writing
instruction practices and teachers’ epistemologies and beliefs about writing instruction. The
Elementary School Journal,112, 155-182.
Troia, G. A., & Maddox, M. E. (2004). Writing instruction in middle schools: Special and general education
teachers share their views and voice their concerns. Exceptionality, 12, 19–37.
Troia, G. A., Shankland, R. K., & Wolbers, K. A. (2010). Reluctant writers and their teachers: Changing
self-efficacy beliefs through lesson study. In G. A. Troia, R. K. Shankland, & A. Heintz (Eds.),
Putting writing research into practice: Applications for teacher professional development (pp. 7090). New York: Guilford.
Troia, G. A., Shankland, R. K., & Wolbers, K. A. (2012). Motivation research in writing: Theoretical and
empirical considerations. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 28, XXXX.
Ulichny, P., & Watson-Gegeo, K. A. (1989). Interactions and authority: The dominant interpretive
framework in writing conferences. Discourse Processes, 12, 309-328.
Wharton-McDonald, R., Pressley, M., & Hampston, J. M. (1998). Literacy instruction in nine first-grade
classrooms: Teacher characteristics and student achievement. The Elementary School Journal,
99, 101-128.
Wood, K. D. (1986). How to smuggle writing into the classroom. Middle School Journal, 17(3), 5–6.