Designing and Conducting
Field Research
Short Course #2
APSA 2012
Instructors:
Diana Kapiszewski, UC Irvine
Naomi Levy, Santa Clara University
Building on a course initially developed and taught by
Melani Cammett (Brown University),
Marc Morjé Howard (Georgetown University),
Evan S. Lieberman (Princeton University),
Julia F. Lynch (University of Pennsylvania),
Lauren Morris MacLean (Indiana University),
Benjamin L. Read (UC Santa Cruz),
Scott Straus (University of Wisconsin, Madison) &
Sara Watson (Ohio State University)
Agenda
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and
Preparing for Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
~ Break (4:10-4:20) ~
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing and Analyzing Data &
Assessing Progress (5:15-6:00)
~ Break (6:00-6:10) ~
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Instant Field Research Survey
• Any prior fieldwork experience?
– If so:
• how many months total ?
• in what regions?
– If not:
• fieldwork planned for when?
• and for where?
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and
Preparing for Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
1. Borders and Varieties of Fieldwork
2. Research Design and Fieldwork
3. Preparing for Fieldwork
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Fieldwork in Political Science:
What Is It?
• Our working definition of field research:
– Leaving one’s home institution to collect data or
information that significantly informs a research
project.
• Fieldwork is not delimited to one’s time in the
field
• Fieldwork is a very iterative process
Fieldwork in Political Science:
Why Do It?
• Is fieldwork still necessary? (Yes!!)
• Sometimes you just have to BE THERE
• Allows building of networks
• Provides opportunities
• Facilitates path-breaking empirical scholarship
• Less tangible reasons
Fieldwork in Political Science:
What Does it Look Like?
• Heterogeneous!
• Different epistemological approaches
• Different types of settings
• Done independently or as part of a larger
project
• Many types of data-collection techniques
• No “standard fieldwork”!
Fieldwork in Political Science:
When Does it Happen?
•
•
•
Selecting the topic
Reading existing literature
Defining the research question
–
•
Scoping trip
Completed proposal
–
–
–
•
Loosely Structured: OpenEnded Research
“Surgical strike” trips
Three-four month trips
Long-haul stays
Writing up
–
Follow-up data-gathering
Highly Structured:
Narrowly Focused
Research
Fieldwork in Political Science:
Trade-offs Among Types
• Long stays:
- Pros
• Experience another
culture
• In-depth research
• Contacts/network
• Ideas
• More relaxed & fun
- Cons
• May be far away
• Lack of urgency
• “Too much” data
• Short trips:
– Pros
• Efficiency
• Forces you to take
stock/think
analytically
• Identify comparisons/
contrasts quicker
• Less time away
– Cons
• Can be more costly
• Scheduling difficulties
• Not enough time
Emotional and Psychological Challenges
• Loneliness / isolation
• NEVER being alone
• Language/cultural
barriers
• Family stresses
• Financial stresses
• NERVOUSNESS!
•
•
•
•
•
Identify your concerns
Network
Balance
Know where to turn
Don’t be stoic!
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and
Preparing for Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
1. Borders and Varieties of Fieldwork
2. Research Design and Fieldwork
3. Preparing for Fieldwork
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Design-Driven Fieldwork
and
Fieldwork-Driven Design
• Field work must fit your research design
• Your design must accommodate field realities
• Competing Imperatives
– Your ideal research design
– Practicality
Design-Driven Fieldwork
and
Fieldwork-Driven Design
• Design “do-able” research
– Think about your own limitations
• Find a way
– Think positively
• Revise
– Think in terms of variables
Fieldwork and the Research Design
• Nomothetic
– Thinking in terms of variables
• Idiographic
– Thinking in terms of cases
Data Matrix
Variable 1
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Variable 2
Variable 3
Case Selection and Sampling
• Selection decisions arise at many stages
– Macro-level
• Country cases
– Meso-level
• Regions or Towns
• Time periods
• Sectors, etc.
– Micro-level
• Individuals for interviews
• Documents for content analysis
Small-N
• Use case selection to provide causal leverage
• Use a variable-centered approach
– Hold rival explanatory variables constant
– Allow your primary explanation to vary
• Example: Dan Posner (2004)
– Macro-level: Zambia & Malawi
– Meso-level: Town selection held rival variables
constant
Posner (2004) Meso-level Selection
Large-N
• Where possible, use random sampling
– This increases the generalizability of your findings
– Need a list of the universe of cases
– Consider cluster sampling
• Sometimes not possible or desirable
– Special cases you want to include
– Important variation you want to capture
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and
Preparing for Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
1. Borders and Varieties of Fieldwork
2. Research Design and Fieldwork
3. Preparing for Fieldwork
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
The Months and Weeks Before…
Administration
• Funding
– Develop a strategy far in advance
– Apply for lots of money
• Dealing with your Institutional Review Board
– Does not have to be difficult!
– Follow the directions, adhere to deadlines
– Find out about exemptions and consent
The Months and Weeks Before…
Intellectual Prep
• Dig into your topic
• Background research on your country/ies
• Begin to write documents
• Collect documents you’ll use in the field
• Brush up on methods
• Think about your foreign language skills
The Months and Weeks Before…
Reach Out!
• Develop your network of scholars and contact
them!
• How about a host institution (research
affiliation)?
Converting your Research Design into a
“To Get List”
Concept
DV
IV 1
IV 2
IV 3
Indicators
Data needed Source for
to measure
data and
how to
collect
When to
get/time
needed
Example of “To Get List”
Concept
Indicators
Data
needed to
measure
Source
When to
for data
get/time
and how needed
to collect
Legal
infrastructure
governing
inf. work
1. # laws
regulating
inf. sector
2. # const.
rts. re: IWs
1. Lists of
nat’l., state,
local laws
2. Const.
rights
1. Gov’t. 1. Early
ministries
(1-2
/offices/
mos.)
on-line
2. Const. 2. Early
Use of
legal
system
by
informal
workers
1. IWs’
court cases
2. Protest
based on
law/const
rights
1. Record of
cases
filed with
courts
2. History
of protest
1.
Courts’
records/
on-line
2. Newspapers
1. Early
(2-3
mos.)
2. Later
Converting your Research Design into a
“To Get List”
Other aspects
of res des/data
collection
Information to
inform case
selection
Permissions
Names of
people to
interview
Causal process
observations
Data / info
needed
Source for
When to
data/info. and get/time
how to collect needed
About the “To Get List”
• You can head to the field before you have your
entire “To Get List” filled out!
• Objectives of the “To Get List”
– Helps make your project manageable
– Is a measure of your progress
– Is the link between all the millions of tasks you
carry out in the field, and your larger project
Converting your Research Design into a
“To Get List”
Variable
DV
IV 1
IV 2
IV 3
Indicators Data
Where/
needed to how to
measure get data
When to
get/time
needed
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and Preparing for
Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection(3:25-4:10)
1. Forms of Data Collection
2. Data Collection: Choices, Challenges,
Assistants
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Non-Interactive Data Collection
• Observations
• Following the local media
– Newspapers, magazines, radio and TV
– Books & articles
• Obtaining Documents & Existing Datasets
– Government agencies & Ministries
– NGOs
• Archival Work
Interactive Data Collection
• Ethnography
– Participant Observation
• Experiments
–
–
–
–
Laboratory experiments
Survey experiments
Natural experiments
Field experiments
• Large-scale surveys
• Interviews
• Focus Groups
Choices in Data Collection
• Strengths and Weaknesses
– Non-interactive
• Documents don’t “react”
• Documents and archives can be biased
– Interactive
• Respondents can provide first-hand account
• Respondents might be inaccurate
• Triangulate!
Triangulation
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and Preparing for
Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
1. Forms of Data Collection
2. Data Collection: Choices, Challenges,
and Assistants
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Sequencing and Prioritizing
Data Collection
• Distinguish necessary from desirable data
– Centrality to core hypotheses or key variables
• Factors to consider in ordering data collection
–
–
–
–
–
Overlapping strategies
Harder-to-get vs. easier-to-get data
“Low-risk” vs. “high-risk” contacts
Temporally tied events
Depth vs. breadth
Anticipate Data Collection Challenges
• Roadblocks to accessing elites, ordinary
citizens, archives, datasets
–
–
–
–
Affiliate
Network – find a “connection”
Think empathetically
BUT consider investment: time, effort, $
Methods for Capturing Data
• Documents
– Take notes
– Reproduce
• Interviews & Focus Groups
–
–
–
–
Field notes after the fact
Jotted notes during
Audio/Video tape
Combo
• How do decide?
– How much data do you want to capture?
– How are you going to use the data?
Methods for Capturing Data (cont’d.)
• Reproducing/Recording Pros
–
–
–
–
Taking home much more data
You aren’t just relying on your notes and memory
Capture verbatim quotes
Richer data
• Reproducing/Recording Cons
– Taking home much more data
– Costly
•
•
•
•
Equipment
Storage
Transportation
Transcription
– Recording can make people nervous
Hiring Research Assistants
• Pros:
– ‘Giving back’ to countries
– Can be a great source of information
– Building long-term relationships
• Cons
– Training = time consuming
– May cause problems/quit/not follow instructns
– May introduce bias
• Recruitment
–
–
–
–
How to find RAs
Interview
What are you offering?
Contract
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and
Preparing for Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:156:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and Preparing for
Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
1. Preparing and Writing Questions
2. Conducting the Interview/Follow-up
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Interviewing
General Guidelines
• Do your homework
• Interview “those who study” before “those
who do”
• Varieties of interviews
– Structured? Semi-structured? Informal chat?
• Scheduling interviews
• Where to conduct the interview
Interviewing
Writing Interview Protocols (I)
• What’s the goal of the interview? Will your
questions produce useful data?
• Language
• Question sequencing
• Theoretically motivated/in colloquial terms
• What are you asking?!
• Asking sensitive questions
• Weeding questions
Interviewing
Writing Interview Protocols (II)
• Transitional language
• Keep questions simple and direct
• Get local input on your questions
• Pretest
• Crucial questions: how are you going to
analyze and use the data?
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and Preparing for
Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
1. Preparing and Writing Questions
2. Conducting the Interview/Follow-up
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Conducting the Interview
• Introducing yourself and your research
• Interacting with your respondent
– Conversation vs. Interview
– DOs and DON’Ts
• Know your protocol
• Prioritize your questions
Conducting the Interview
• Probes
– follow-up questions that are used to deepen a
response to a question
• Types
– Basic signals
– Detail-oriented Questions
• who, what, where, when, how
– Elaboration Probes
• “Tell me more”
– Clarification Probes
• “What do you mean?”
Conducting the Interview
• Using Silence
–
–
–
–
One of the most useful “probes”
Gives the subject the space to talk
Wait longer than is comfortable for you
Builds constructive tension
• Taking notes
– A form a body language
– What to write
• Wrapping up
– Be thankful, be very very thankful!
After the Interview
• Write up your notes!!!
–
–
–
–
–
Worth being VERY disciplined about this!
Do it before you conduct another interview
Include a description of the person & location
Note the most important new information
Remember: writing notes is a form of data reduction
• If you record, dealing with your recordings
– Transcribe? “Listen through”? Put aside?
• Send a thank you note!
• Getting better
Activity: Interviewing
• Write out your 30 second elevator pitch.
• Try it out on your neighbors and get their
input.
• Before you start…
– What is an elevator pitch?
– Questions elevator pitch should answer?
– Language
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and Preparing for
Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection(3:25-4:10)
**Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing and Analyzing Data &
Assessing Progress (5:15-6:00)
1. Organizing and Analyzing Data
2. Assessing Progress and Wrapping Up
**Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Data Organization:
Questions to Consider
• You’re Project Manager of your study –
organize and systematize from the start!
• Why organize?
– Helps you to see the progress you’ve made
– Eases re-entry
• What needs to be organized?
– data
– contacts
– thoughts
Organizing Your Data
Sources of Data
Forms of Data
Interviews
Notes, Tapes, Transcripts
Archives
Notes, Copies
Written Primary and
Secondary Sources
Notes, Copies
Datasets
Electronic Files, Printed Copies
Observations
Notes, Tapes
Misc. Documents
Notes, Copies
Establish a System for Filing
Physical and Electronic Documents
SAMPLE FILING SYSTEM
Research Project
Administration
Contact lists
Bibliography
Letters Out
Letters In
Data
Quant Data
Surveys (forms)
Economic data
Other coded datasets
Qualit Data
Interview transcripts
Notes from archives
Scholarly Articles
Reading notes
Newspaper clippings
Reports/ Brochures
Analysis
Output
Outline
Summaries
Charts
Graphs
Thesis chapters
Articles
Organizing Your Contacts (I)
• Develop a contact management system
– What matters most is that it works for you.
• General suggestions
–
–
–
–
Separate from your general address book.
Lots of fields
Set up to automate thank-you letters
Easy retrieval for follow-up, thank you notes, future
projects
– Make it the beginning of a database
Organizing Your Contacts (II)
Chart for Potential Respondents
Status Respondent Position/
Suggestion
and contact Comments of
info.
whom
Progress
(e-mails; phone
calls, etc.)
X
02Jan2005 –
spoke with
secretary…
Fernando
Prieto
513-5887…
Sec: Claudia
Head of
Central
Bank… was
important…
Status:
X = need to find
X = found, need to get going
X = going
X = set and/or done
X = don’t do anything for now
X = give up/declined
Gustavo
Sainz (said
talk to him
esp. about...)
Organizing Your Contacts (III)
Interview Clean-up
Intrvw.
code
Intervw.
done
Names
given
added
to
contact
list
Type up
notes /
things said
off record /
thoughts
Send
thank
you
note
Still need/
respondent
promised/
need to
follow-up
EC-01
22 sept.
2005
22 Sept.
2005
22 Sept.
2005
22 Sept.
2005
Promised
document
on…
Digesting Your Data
• Develop a strategy for keeping track of your
thoughts
– Make a habit of writing
– Organize your thoughts
• Begin your analysis while in the field
– Periodically read through your documents and notes
– Write tentative memos
• Prepare your data for analysis
– Think about your coding strategy
– Import data into software programs
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and Preparing for
Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
**Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing and Analyzing Data &
Assessing Progress (5:15-6:00)
1. Organizing and Analyzing Data
2. Assessing Progress and Wrapping Up
**Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)
Assessing Your Progress (I)
• Challenge: simultaneously thinking micro
(trees) and thinking macro (forest)
• Where are you on the “to get” list?
– How much data have you collected?
– How many of the people you consider crucial have
you spoken with?
• How about in terms of your argument?
– Have evidence to support your hypotheses?
– Have evidence to address “alternative hypotheses”?
• Get help to correct for “field goggles” -- to
push larger questions to the forefront
Assessing Your Progress III
• Different vehicles for telling your evolving
story
– Periodic written reports or memos to advisors
– Write conference papers.
– Present your work in-country informally
• Upsides
– Helps you do some early analysis
– Gets you feedback on your analysis and story
– Helps you see where you really are!
Making Adjustments
•
It’s common for people to (want to) make
some adjustments
•
Carefully consider any change to your project
–
–
–
–
Be patient and set some reasonable deadlines.
Carefully diagnose the problem.
Talk with others about your potential “fix”
Make sure your “fix” addresses the problem.
What seems
to be the
problem?
Why is this
happening?
Possible fixes Should I change
my topic?
I can’t answer
the question
Unfalsifiable
question;
Access issues
Triangulate;
Only if multiple, central
Come back later; hypotheses are
Do without
untestable
Make it a good
I’m surprised by Your initial guesses
the answer
were wrong;
surprise
You’re not getting the
full story
Only if nothing of value
to be gained from
pursuing question in
its current framing
I’m testing the
wrong
hypotheses
Theories were
inapplicable;
You made a good
guess, but guessed
wrong
Come up with
new hypotheses
and ways to test
them
Generally not a reason
to change topics
I’m asking the
wrong question
Remind yourself
You’re bored;
Your question got
why you asked
dated;
this question;
It really was never the Take a historical
right question
view;
Link to different
theories
Radical change usually
not advisable
Tweaking Your Project
• Micro-level Matrix -- Individuals
Association # of Grants/yr
Sources
Person 1
Org 1
12
Government
Person 2
Org 1
10
International
Person 3
Org 1
13
Government
Person 4
Org 2
2
Private
Person 5
Org 2
1
Private
Person 6
Org 2
3
Private
Tweaking Your Project
• Meso-level Matrix
Funding
Sources Connectivity
Organization 1 Well-funded
Gov’t &
Int’l
Organization 2 Struggling
Private
Knowing When to Wrap Things Up
• Develop criteria to help you determine when
you have “enough”
– Check your “to get” list
– What information is only available abroad?
• Consider how much paper to cart home (or
between countries)
• Return trips are an option
– Research sites won’t disappear
– You will be able to hit the ground running
Preparing for “Life After Field Research”
While in the Field
• Consider reintegration strategies
– Request office space from your home dept
– Join a dissertation-writing group
– To TA or not to TA?
• Try to plan out your first month back
–
–
–
–
Unpack your boxes ASAP
Deal with unfinished field business
Data to transcribe, code, enter, or clean up
Reconnect with your advisors
• Plan to go easy on yourself!
Where We Are in the Course
Part I – Conceptualizing, Designing, and Preparing for
Fieldwork (2:00-3:25)
Part II – Data Collection (3:25-4:10)
* Break (4:10-4:20)
Part III – Interviewing (4:20-5:15)
Part IV – Organizing, Analyzing, Assessing (5:15-6:00)
* Break (6:00-6:10)
Workshop (6:10-7:00)