Chapter 2
Early Societies in Southwest
Asia and the Indo-European
Migrations
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Civilization Defined
Urban
Political/military system
Social stratification
Economic specialization
Religion
Communications
“Higher culture”
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Features of a civilization
Cities withOrganized government
Complex religion
Job specialization
Social classes
Arts and architecture
Public works
Writing (people know how to read
and write)
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Mesopotamia
“Between the Rivers”
Tigris and Euphrates
Modern-day Iraq
Cultural continuum of
“fertile crescent”
Sumerians the dominant
people
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The Wealth of the Rivers
Nutrient-rich silt
Key: irrigation
Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 B.C.E.
By 5000 B.C.E., complex irrigation networks
Necessity of coordinated efforts
Promoted development of local governments
City-states
Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 B.C.E.
Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture
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Sumerian City-States
Cities appear 4000 B.C.E.
Dominate region from 3200 to 2350 B.C.E.
Ziggurat home of the god
Uruk
Irrigation systems
Defense from nomadic marauders
Absolute monarchies
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The Ziggurat of Ur
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Political Decline of Sumer
Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia overshadow
Sumer
Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)
Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 B.C.E.)
Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created empire based
in Akkad
Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions
Improved taxation, legislation
Used local governors to maintain control of city-states
Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from
Anatolia, ca. 1595 B.C.E.
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Legal System
Code of Hammurabi
Established high standards of behavior and stern
punishment for violators
Lex talionis – “law of retaliation”
Social status and punishment
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Later Mesopotamian Empires
Weakening of central rule an invitation to foreign
invaders
Assyrians use new iron weaponry
Beginning 1300 B.C.E., by eighth to seventh centuries
B.C.E. control Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, most of
Egypt
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (r. 605-562) takes
advantage of internal dissent to create Chaldean
(New Babylonian) empire
Famously luxurious capital
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Mesopotamian Empires, 1800-600 B.C.E.
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Technological Development in
Mesopotamia
Bronze (copper with tin), ca. 4000 B.C.E.
Iron, ca. 1000 B.C.E.
Military, agricultural applications
Cheaper than bronze
Wheel, boats, ca. 3500 B.C.E.
Shipbuilding increases trade networks
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Social Classes
Ruling classes based often on military prowess
Religious classes
Role: intervention with gods to ensure good fortune for
community
Considerable landholdings, other economic activities
Free commoners
Perceived as offspring of gods
Peasant cultivators
Some urban professionals
Slaves
Prisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors
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Patriarchal Society
Men as landowners, relationship to status
Patriarchy: “rule of the father”
Right to sell wives, children
Marriage arrangements for children
Double standard of sexual morality
Women drowned for adultery
Relaxed sexual mores for men
Could legally engage with relations with prostitutes and
slaves
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Yet some possibilities of social mobility for
women –
Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic
activity -Scribes, midwives, shop keepers, brewers,
bakers, tavern keepers and textile makers
Women examined to ensure virgins
Man strictly wanted to control women’s sexual
behaviors
By 1500 BCE veils started to be worn
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Development of Writing
Sumerians experiment with pictographs
2900 B.C.E. Sumerians create writing system
Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped”
Preservation of documents on clay
Declines from 400 B.C.E. with spread of Greek
alphabetic script
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Uses for Writing
Trade
Astronomy
Mathematics
Agricultural applications
Calculation of time
12-month year
24-hour day, 60-minute hour
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Mesopotamian Literature
Epic of Gilgamesh, compiled after 2000 B.C.E.
Heroic saga
Search for meaning, especially the afterlife
This-worldly emphasis
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The Early Hebrews
According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham
migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca. 1850 B.C.E.
Parallels between early biblical texts, code of
Hammurabi
Scriptures state Hebrews under Moses go to
Palestine, ca. 1300 B.C.E.
On-going conflict with indigenous populations
King David (1000-970 B.C.E.) and Solomon
(970-930 B.C.E.)
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Moses and Monotheism
Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other
Mesopotamian civilizations
Moses introduced monotheism, belief in single
god
Denied existence of competing parallel deities
Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity
with revealed law
The Torah (“doctrine or teaching”)
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Foreign Conquests of Israel
Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E.
Conquered the northern kingdom
Deported many inhabitants to other regions
Many exiles assimilated and lost their identity
Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E.
Destroyed Jerusalem
Forced many into exile
Israelites maintained their religious identity and many
returned to Judea
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Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 B.C.E.
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The Phoenicians
City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000
B.C.E.
Extensive maritime trade
Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 B.C.E.
Development of alphabet symbols
Simpler alternative to cuneiform
Spread of literacy
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Indo-European Migrations
Common roots of many languages of Europe,
southwest Asia, India
Implies influence of a single Indo-European
people
Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and
Russia, 4500-2500 B.C.E.
Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian
weaponry allowed them to spread widely
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Indo-European Migrations 3000-1000 B.C.E.
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Implications of Indo-European
Migration
Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, ca. 1900
B.C.E., later dominate Babylonia
Influence on trade
Horses, chariots with spoked wheels
Iron
Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also
significant
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