Gender and the Workplace
Presentation for GNDR 111: Introduction to Gender Studies
Dane M. Partridge, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Management
Director, University Honors Program
University of Southern Indiana
March 2008
2
Gender and Education

Evidence of gender disparity in terms of kinds of
jobs children think about re: future employment



Where does this come from? Are boys and girls
encouraged to take different academic programs that lead
to different skills, many of which are gender role
stereotyped?
Evolution over time: In 1970, women earned only 9% of
bachelor’s degrees in business, 4% of master’s; in 1995,
48% and 37%, respectively
Evolution over time: Doctorates in physics earned by
women have increased from 3% of total in 1970 to 15.5%
in 2002; engineering, <1% to 17%, etc.
3
Labor Force Participation

Labor force participation rate of women has
increased from 43.4% in 1971 to 60.2% in
2000

Men’s rate has decreased from 79.1% to
74.7%






White men’s LFPR in 2000: 75.4%
White women:
59.8
Black men:
69.0
Black women:
63.2
Hispanic men:
80.6
Hispanic women:
56.9
 Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
4
Earnings

Median weekly earnings, full-time wage and
salary workers, 2007II






White men:
White women:
Black men:
Black women:
Hispanic men:
Hispanic women:

$783
$620
$597
$521
$523
$470
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
6
Organizational Behavior Research

OB research suggests men and women often
differ in communication styles


Men more likely than women to view conversations
as negotiations of relative status and power
Also evidence than men interrupt women far more
often than vice versa and that they dominate the
‘talk time’ in conversations w/ women


Some evidence that women more satisfied with ‘virtual
team’ experience than men
Possibly due to nature of computer-mediated
communication: lack of nonverbal cues and structure
allowed for more equal group participation
 Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
7
Organizational Behavior Research

Men more likely to engage in “report talk,”
women in “rapport talk”

Rather than asserting status, women use indirect
requests



Women apologize more often and seek advice more
quickly than do men
Women are more sensitive to nonverbal cues in face-toface meetings
But, men and women mostly overlap in their
verbal communication styles

Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
8
Organizational Behavior Research

Some OB research suggests men and women
differ in use of organizational political tactics

Direct impression mngt tactics apparently used more
often by men than women



Men and women seem to differ in assigning blame



Men more likely to advertise their achievements and take personal
credit for successes of others reporting to them
Women prefer to share credit w/ others
Women more likely to apologize, even for problems not caused by
them
Men more likely to assign blame and less likely to assume it
Women more likely to use indirect impression mngt as
well as forms of networking and coalition building (but
don’t over-generalize)

Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
9
Organizational Behavior Research

OB research suggests men and women differ
to limited extent in conflict management style



Women pay more attention than do men to the
relationship btwn the parties
Women tend to adopt collaborative style in business
settings, more willing to compromise to protect the
relationship
Men tend to be more competitive and take short-term
orientation

Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
10
Organizational Behavior Research

Gender Issues in Leadership

Common belief that men and women lead differently


Suggested that these qualities make women particularly
well-suited given stronger emphasis on teams and EI


76% of male and female chief executives believe than leadership
and mngt skills of women differ markedly from male counterparts

Women generally seen as consensus builders, more
participative leaders
Arguments consistent w/ sex-role stereotypes, that men are more
task-oriented and women more people-oriented
Research suggests that male and female leaders
equally people-oriented, but female leaders tend to be
more participative

Stereotyping may lead to greater negative consequences for
autocratic female leaders

Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
11
Are Women More Ethical Than Men?



Men tend to use
principles of justice,
women tend to use
principles of caring, so
women have more of a
relationship ethic
Vs.
Socialization matters,
gender doesn’t
12
Earnings Gap and Employment Law

Male/female earnings gap has persisted to
considerable extent over last 25 years


Currently ~80%
Equal Pay Act (1963)



Prohibits pay discrimination based on gender
Men and women must receive equal pay for “equal work”
Allows pay differences based on





Seniority
Merit
Productivity
Any factor other than gender
Cannot lawfully pay women less than men by labeling
identical work differently
13
“Women vs. Wal-Mart”
JOB
NO. OF
EES*
REGIONAL V-P
39
DISTRICT MNGR
508
STORE MANAGER 3,241
ASST MNGR
18,731
MNGT TRAINEE
1,203
DPT HEAD
63,747
SALES ASSOC 100,003
CASHIER
50,987
% OF
WOMEN
AVERAGE ANNUAL
EARNINGS** IN 2001
----------------------------MALE
FEMALE
SALARIES SALARIES
10%
10
14
36
41
78
68
93
$419,400
239,500
105,700
39,800
23,200
23,500
16,500
14,500
$279,800
177,100
89,300
37,300
22,400
21,700
15,100
13,800
* Full-time ** Including bonuses Data: Richard Drogin
15
Earnings Gap

Differences in Occupational Attainment
 Discrimination and gender stereotyping or choice?

In early 70s, over half of women workers were in administrative support
and service occupations, cf. 15% of men


In early 70s, less than 20% of managers were women


College major is single strongest factor affecting income of college
graduates
Differences in Industries and Firms


Today, less than 10%
Differences in Personal Work-Related Characteristics
 Experience, seniority, education


Today, about half of managers are women
In 1960, almost half of women who graduated from college became
teachers


Today, about 40% of women work in support and service
Female employment more heavily concentrated in small firms
Differences in Union Membership

Source: Milkovich and Newman (2005)
16
Assertiveness Gap?

Study of MBAs entering job market, interviewing for position paying
$61K



Men and women have different attitudes about competing and
winning




71% of male candidates believed they were better than other
candidates, told hiring managers so, asked for more money
70% of female candidates believed themselves to be equal to other
candidates, willing to accept offered salary
In research study involving computer maze, men performed 50% better
when competing against others in group rather than when paid piecerate
In research study involving runners, boys ran faster if they ran against
other boys, even faster if they ran against girls; girls ran at same speed
either running alone or w/ competitor
Social risks: “Consistent assertiveness in a woman rankles people”
Men may be more comfortable with selling themselves than women

Source: Washington Post, 7/8/03
17
Earnings Gap and Employment Law

In AFSCME v. State of Washington case, jobs of
maintenance carpenter (2.3% female) and secretary
(98.5% female) were deemed to be “equal” in value or
worth by job evaluation study




Prevailing market rate 7/1/80 for carpenter, $1707/mo., for secretary,
$1122/mo.
What to do?
Market rates are defense to paying dissimilar jobs differently
under Civil Rights Act (unlike Equal Pay Act, and equal work)
“Comparable worth” advocates that women performing jobs
judged to be equal on some measure of worth should be paid
the same as men


Not mandated by federal law
Some states, for public employees; Ontario, public and private
18
Differences in Occupational Attainment

Causes of Job
Segregation


Socialization
Social and
Institutional
Barriers


But note
CRA ‘64
What about
ease of exit and
re-entry?
19
Diversity Initiatives


Diversity initiatives are about creating an inclusive
climate. “There must be a place for everyone, even
those whose personalities, political parties, religious
practices and a host of other variables require
accommodation.”
“Diversity is easy when we are all alike. It is really
tested when we are forced to be flexible and expand
the boundaries of our inclusion.”
20
Diversity Initiatives


“Inclusion, however, does not require changing your
values. It is not the organization’s place to tell you
how to feel or how to think, but it can legitimately
expect you to work with any and all colleagues and
coworkers on common tasks.”
“Appreciating fellow employees for their talents and
utilizing those talents in pursuit of accomplishing
goals and objectives should be the focus of a
diversity initiative.”

Gardenswartz and Rowe (1999)
21
Gender Diversity

What tactics are orgs using?


Set goals and objectives
Modify succession planning

Identify top female/minority candidates, provide opportunities
to acquire necessary experience




Lack of general mngt or line mngt experience seen as primary
obstacle to advancement of women
“Glass walls” as well as “glass ceilings”
Pay for diversity management performance
Diversity training

E.g., male/female differences in leadership styles

(Business Week, 2/17/97; Harvard Business Review, June
2003)
22
A Cautionary Note…



Recent research suggests that having a diverse workforce does
little to improve a Co’s business performance or bottom line
Diversity education programs have little impact on performance
 Don’t give people skills needed
 Need training to deal with group process issues, communicating
and problem-solving in diverse teams
Hard metrics for measuring performance results or return on
diversity spending are in very short supply
 Generally more success in dealing with gender issues than
racial/ethnic issues

Source: Workforce, April 2003
23
Sexual Harassment Defined

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for
sexual favors, and other verbal or physical
conduct of a sexual nature, when:


Quid pro quo
Unreasonably interferes with work performance
or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive
work environment
24
Sexual Harassment Defined

Elements of “hostile work environment”


Severe and pervasive
Reasonable person (woman?) test



To what extent do men and women differ in their
perceptions?
Employee need not have suffered any detriment (e.g.,
termination)
Basis for imputing liability to employer



Conduct by supervisor
Co-worker
Client or customer
25
Sexual Harassment Defined

Employer’s defense (when no tangible employment
action taken against employee)


employer “exercised reasonable care to prevent and
correct promptly any sexually harassing behavior,” and
“the plaintiff employee unreasonably failed to take
advantage of any preventive or corrective opportunities
provided by the employer or to avoid harm otherwise”
26
Elements Of An Effective Harassment
Prevention Policy




Be in writing;
Define what constitutes harassment and declare
that it will not be tolerated;
Establish a complaint procedure;
Involve training and education programs to
sensitize supervisors and employees to
harassment issues;
27
Elements Of An Effective Harassment
Prevention Policy


Include a prompt and thorough
investigation of every complaint;
Provide for prompt corrective action,
including appropriate disciplinary action, if
it is determined that unlawful harassment
occurred.
28
Hostile Work Environment and the
“Assumption of Risk”



You are a restaurant manager and patrons are making arguably offensive
comments to female waitstaff. What do you do?
Does it matter whether it’s Hacienda or Hooters?
Hooters staff must sign Co SH policy, which includes acknowledgement that
“female sexual appeal is an essential ingredient of the Hooters concept”

Also must sign Ee handbook containing waiver:

“Work environment is one in which joking and innuendo based on female sex appeal is
commonplace….I do not find my job duties, uniform requirements, or work environment
to be offensive.”



Uniform requirements include orange shorts, Hooters t-shirt, half-shirt, tank top, and “promlike appearance” (hair, makeup, nails done neatly)
In Washington D.C. area, mngr filed SH case based in part on boss taking
her to lunch at Hooters
Settled hiring discrimination lawsuit in 1997, after EEOC dropped action in
1996
29
Affirmative Action Plans


Objective distinguishable from equal employment
opportunity – it is to take “affirmative action” to
increase representation of historically
underrepresented groups
Elements


Utilization analysis
Goals and timetables



“goal” vs. “quota”
Action steps
OFCCP
30
Redefining Achievement

Should achievement be redefined, so as to
better reflect women’s lives and realities?


To achieve work/life balance?
How would you define success in your life, re:
career, family, other activities?
31
Power: Do Women Really Want It?

Should ‘power’ be redefined?
 Do women have to follow ‘the boys’ scorecard’?


Suggested that women view power differently from way men do
 Seen in terms of influence, not rank


‘Making a difference’
Many fast-track women ambivalent about what’s next


Fortune 2003
This despite fact they foresee day in which there is parity in gender
representation at top of corporate America
Do women lack power in business because they just don’t want it enough?
 Do women want to ‘fill the pipeline’?


Only 9% of teenage girls anticipate careers in business, cf. 15% of boys
Women make up 36% of MBA students, cf. 47% med school and 49% law
school

Half of entering classes at law and medical schools are fresh out of college, but
most first-year business students have had three to five years work experience
– biological clocks are ticking (New York Times, 11/6/04)
32
Power: Do Women Really Want It?

GE study of 135,000 professional ees
 Women quit at higher rate



Female voluntary turnover 8%, cf. 6.5% for males (2,000+ more women quit
each year)
Catalyst studies
 26% of professional women who are not yet in most senior position
indicate they don’t want it
 But, while 57% of men aspire to be CEO, so do 55% of women… (Wall
Street Journal, 6/23/04)
Women have made more progress in moving into top positions in academe
than in business or government
 21% of college presidents are female
 USI’s provost (Linda Bennett) is female




16% of law firm partners are female
14% of U.S. Senate and 14% of U.S. House female
8% of major co top mngrs (EVP+) female, 2% of CEOs of Fortune 500 female
However, may not hold true for sciences (where perception is that gov’t
has been more open and fair…)
33
Power: Do Women Really Want It?


Gender differences
 Citigroup mngr reports that when she interviews candidates for “stretch
assignments,” women often tell her they’re not ready – men almost
never do
May be it’s not that women can’t get high-level jobs, but rather they’re
choosing not to…
 “Dirty secret: women demand a lot more satisfaction in their lives than
men do” (Jamie Gorelick)


“Women have to play be the same rules as men do, and right now there are
really brutal rules for women who want to have families” (Hilary Clinton)
To get to highest levels of power, women may be forced to choose between
work and children
 Or may need stay-at-home spouse

“Glass ceiling” or “maternal wall”


Er who assumes mother is less committed to job because of home
responsibilities is engaged in potentially illegal gender role stereotyping re:
caregivers (HBR, 10/04)
“The Opt-Out Revolution” (Belkin, NYTimes Magazine, 2003)
34
The Opt-Out Revolution

Between one-quarter and one-third of professional
women are out of work force

Number of children being cared for by stay-at-home moms
has increased by nearly 13% in less than a decade


Two-thirds of mothers 25-44 work fewer than 40 hrs/wk


Percentage of new mothers who go back to work fell to 55% in
2000, from 59% in 1998
Only 5% work 50+ hrs
White male MBAs: 95% working full-time; white female
MBAs: 67% (African-American female MBAs more similar
to white men than women)
35
The Opt-Out Revolution


Belkin suggests that women today have the
equal right to make same bargain men have
made for centuries – to take time from family
in pursuit of success
Instead, women are redefining success


In doing so, redefining work?
Suggested that balance between work and
life is different for women than men

But, pull of motherhood or push of job
dissatisfaction?
36
Redesigning Organizations

Significant organizational challenge in redesigning organizations
to take advantage of mothers ready to re-enter work force
 Attract, retain, motivate, plus now re-integrate?
 Many professional women who quit their jobs to raise children
now trying to go back – and they’re finding it harder than they
ever imagined


Two-thirds of highly-educated women who left jobs mainly for family
reasons want to return to work
Deloitte & Touche “Personal Pursuits” program, which allows ees to
take unpaid leave for as long as five years


Training sessions for those on leave, mentors to stay in touch
“There’s a part of every woman who has had what it takes to succeed
on Wall Street that yearns for that type of overachieving applause
that you got, and that motherhood does not allow you to have.
There’s just no applause. And I miss that.”

Source: Wall Street Journal, 5/6/04
37
Redesigning Organizations

37% of women surveyed in study in Harvard Business
Review voluntarily left work at some point in their careers –
43% of those w/ children – average break lasted ~2 years
 In contrast, only 24% of men took time off from
careers (w/ no difference btwn fathers and nonfathers) – average break lasted ~1 year
 44% of women cited family responsibilities as reason
for leaving, cf. 12% of men



Among men, primary reason was career enhancement
In this study, 93% of women who took time off from
work wanted to return to careers
Reductions in earnings potential due to exit and reentry are a primary reason for earnings gap btwn men
and women of comparable education increasing
during child-bearing and –rearing years

Source: Business Week, 3/28/05
38
Selling Yourself

Strategies consultants offer for mothers planning to
return to work




Present your volunteer work with active business words
Never apologize for the time off
Convey that you’re truly committed to working again
While you’re out of work:


Be strategic about volunteer work you do
Keep abreast of your field

Source: Wall Street Journal, 5/6/04
39
Redesigning Organizations

Some evidence of growing dissatisfaction on part of men w/ price
required to advance in corporate America, desire for same flexibility and
balance that women want

Belkin suggests that instead of women being forced to act like men, men are
being freed to act like women


Number of married men who are full-time caregivers to their children has
increased 18% (to what and from when?)
Working men born between 1965 and 1979 now spend ~3.5 hrs/day with
their children – same amount as working women


Among all working men, ~2.7 hrs, up from 1.8 hrs in 1977
70% of men report they would take a pay cut to spend more time at home w/
family, almost half would turn down promotion if it meant less family time


Biggest change is new unwillingness to relocate

(Business Week, 11/8/04)
Family-friendly organization?

Better opportunities to work flexible hours, share jobs, not relocate

NPR: “Women’s Perks Can Bring New Problems”
40
Get a Life!


Men and women far more alike in
desires than had been assumed
84% of senior Fortune 500 male
execs say they’d like job options
that let them realize professional
aspirations while having more time
for things outside work


55% say they’re willing to sacrifice
income
80-hr week had become norm in
consulting, law, investment banking



Jeff Immelt, GE CEO, boasts of
working 100 hrs/wk for 25 years
“Businesses need to be 24/7 –
individuals don’t” (Anne Mulcahy,
CEO Xerox)
Nearly half believe that for exec to
bring this up w/ boss will hurt career

The younger the exec is, the more
likely to care about this

Fortune, 11/28/05
41
Get a Life!

Up to 80% of top mngt time is devoted to
issues that account for less than 20% of co’s
long-term value
42
Law School: Out of the Combat Zone

One group of female legal scholars
vehemently opposed to Socratic Method


Observed that women tend to be more reflective
and take longer to formulate answers in class
Men often better at giving quick, clear-cut answers
under the pressure Socratic Method creates

Women law school graduates more than twice as likely
to choose public-interest jobs (although very small
percentage of both do so)

Source: New York Times, 11/6/04
43