Chapter 15 Notes
States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa
Chapter 15 Timeline
4TH CENTURY INTRODUCTION OF BANANAS TO AFRICA
11-13TH CENT KINGDOM OF GHANA
11-15TH CENT SWAHILI CITIES
12-15TH CENT KINGDOM OF GREAT ZIMBABWE
12-16TH CENT CHRISTIAN KINGDOM OF AXUM
13-15TH CENT MALI EMPIRE
1230 – 1255 REIGN OF SUNDIATA
14-17TH CENT KINGDOM OF KONGO
1312 – 1337 REIGN OF MANSA MUSA
1324 – 1325 MANSA MUSA’S PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA
Effects of Early African Migrations
AGRICULTURE AND POPULATION GROWTH
Bananas: fresh migratory surge; entered Africa through the Indian Ocean; Malay seafarers 
Madagascar  the African mainland; Allowed Bantu to expand into heavily forested areas where
yams and millet didn’t grow well; enriched Bantu diet; populations grew faster
Population Growth: Reflects significance of iron metallurgy and bananas; contributed to changes in
relationships between Bantu and foraging peoples; forest dwellers of central Africa = pygmies;
foragers were displaced – integrated or moved back deeper into the forest
AFRICAN POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Kin-Based Societies: No hierarchy, bureaucracy, or administration; villages of about 100 people; male
heads made up council – public affairs – most prominent male head = the chief. Group of villages =
district – no chief of districts
Chiefdoms: Kin-based societies had limited resources; conflicts within districts and villages  more
frequent and intense fights  armies  formal governmental structures  districts being led by chiefs
(imposed authority on territories); Ife and Benin – West Africa, city states  court and urban
residents; sculptures
Kingdom of Kongo: one of the most active areas of political development; regional principalities; trade
networks; Modern-day Congo and Angola; central government = king and officials – oversaw
judiciary, military, financial affairs (currency based on cowry shells); 6 provinces with governors who
oversaw several districts
African Society and Cultural Development
SOCIAL CLASSES
Kongo, Mali, and Kilwa  defined classes: ruling elites, military nobles, admin officials,
religious authorities, merchants, peasants, slaves
Kinship Groups: no private property; extended family and clans = foundation of social and economic
organization  allocated lands for relatives to cultivate
Sex and Gender Relations: Men – specialized skills: leather tanning, iron working, blacksmiths (often
served as community leaders). Also took care of clearing land and prepping it for cultivation. Women
– domestic chores and child rearing
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Women’s Roles: generally had more opportunities than they did in other lands; high honor as the
sources of life; some positions of power, so merchants or even warriors; with arrival of Islam,
women’s roles didn’t change that much; could socialize with men outside immediate family
Age Grades: same age groups did similar tasks; bonded, social ties that crossed lines of family and
kinship
Slavery: Most captives of war – some debtors, suspected witches, or criminals; most agricultural
laborers many also construction, miners, or porters; absence of private property  slaves were a
symbol of wealth
Slave Trading: expansion of trade routes  stimulation of African slave trading; Muslim merchants
used European as slaves  not enough Euros to satisfy demands  started to use Africans Rulers
took over places just to get captives; Zanj = black slaves from Swahili coast sugarcane plantations –
glimpse at harsh conditions they suffered through  revolts not uncommon  Slave named Ali bin
Muhammad and 15,000 slaves revolted, overran Barsa in Southern Mesopotamia  only defeated 14
years later by an Abbasid ruler
AFRICAN RELIGION
Creator God: Many held monotheistic beliefs  single divine force created world and keeps it going
 works through spirits
Lesser Gods and Spirits: many associated with elements and with natural features; ancestor worship as
well; prayers, animal sacrifices, and ceremonious marking important stages of life
Diviners: usually men, but sometimes women; just like priests in other societies; consulted oracles;
strongly emphasized morality and proper behavior
THE ARRIVAL OF CHRISTIANITY
Early Christianity in North Africa: Reached Egypt during first century; Alexandria; North Africa was
the home of St. Augustine
The Christian Kingdom of Axum: Christian foothold; highlands of modern Ethiopia; merchants and
missionaries; kings converted; Axum  decline: expansion of Islam, isolated island of Christianity; 11
massive churches out of rock; Solomonic dynasty  claimed to be descendants of David and
Solomon; Kebra Negast (The Glory of Kings)- traced lineage  recently become popular with
Rastafarians
Ethiopian Christianity: little contact with Christians in other lands  basic Christian theology and
rituals but reflected a lot of the African interests
Islamic Kingdoms and Empires
TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE AND ISLAMIC STATES IN WEST AFRICA
Camels: Travel across Sahara quickened; came to North Africa from Arabia; 70-90 days to cross
Sahara; Arab conquerors established Islamic faith  integrated the region into a rapidly expanding
zone of commerce and communication; found series of long-established trading centers such as Gao 
offered access to the Niger River Valley
The Kingdom of Ghana: Principal state of West Africa when Muslim’s arrived; between Senegal and
Niger rivers
Gold Trade: Trade and traffic across desert increased  Ghana had dramatic transformation – most
important commercial site in West Africa – center for trade in gold; Muslim merchants flocked in
search of gold; Ghana didn’t produce Gold  kings got in from lands to the South; controlled taxes
and trade of precious metals  wealth to lands; also ivory and slaves for traders from North Africa
Koumbi-Saleh: Capital and principal trading site; Al-Bakri – Spanish Muslim traveler; taxes levied on
trade  king financed a large army
Islam in West Africa: Kings of Ghana converted to Islam  improved relations with Muslim nomads
and merchants; didn’t attempt to force Islam onto their society; continued to observe traditional
religious customs; natives practiced magic and kept idols in woods around royal palace; Kingdom
expanded north  vulnerable to nomadic people  raids from the desert weakened kingdom
Sundiata: The lion prince; built Mali Empire; large army dominated by cavalry
The Mali Empire and Trade: benefited from trans-Saharan trade even more than Ghana; controlled and
taxed almost all trade passing through West Africa; capital at Niani  attracted merchants; market
cities on caravan routes – Timbuktu, Gao, and Jenne; Mali  Islam  didn’t force Islam on their
realm
Mansa Musa: Trade and Islam’s significance clearest during reign of Sundiata’s grand-nephew Mansa
Musa ruled during high point of empire. Huge caravan  Mecca for hijra  distributed so much gold
that its value declined up to 25%
Mansa Musa and Islam: Took Islam even more seriously after his return from Mecca  built Mosques,
established religious schools, brought in teachers from Arabia (4 descendants of Muhammad); factions
 provinces seceded  military pressures from neighboring kingdoms and desert nomads  Songhay
empire completely overcame Mali by the late 15th Century
THE INDIAN OCEAN TRADE AND ISLAMIC STATES IN EAST AFRICA
The Swahili: Arabic term meaning “coasters”; dominated East African coast from Mogadishu in the
North to Kilwa, the Comoro Islands, and Sofala in the South; communicated with each other
The Swahili City-States: Local chiefs grew wealthy by controlling and taxing trade; Trade
concentrated at several coastal and island ports: Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar,
Kilwa, Mozambique, and Sofala  each developed into a powerful city-state governed by a king;
transformations: wood and dried mud  large coral buildings  stone mosques and public buildings
Kilwa: one of the busiest city-states on East Africa coast; stone buildings and mosques; lots of
imported goods: porcelain, silk, cotton, pearls; exported about a ton of gold every year
Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe refers to the dwelling of a chief; built huge stone complex – Great Zimbabwe –
16 feet thick, 32 feet tall – city of stone towers, palaces, and public buildings – served as capital; Kings
that lived in GZ controlled/taxed the trade between interior and coastal regions
Islam in East Africa: ruling elites and wealthy merchants converted; didn’t always give up their other
religions; cooperation with Muslim merchants; Islam = fresh legitimacy for their rule; conversion 
political alliances with Muslim rulers
Griot – member of a class of storytellers in west Africa who maintain a tradition of oral history
Chapter 17 Notes
Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania
Chapter 17 Timeline
950 - 1150
HIGH POINT OF THE TOLTEC EMPIRE
1175
COLLAPSE OF TOLTEC EMPIRE
1250
INCA SETTLEMENT NEAR CUZCO
1345
FOUNDATION OF TENOCHTITLAN BY THE MEXICA
1400
EMERGENCE OF THE 5 IROQUOIS NATIONS
1428 – 1440 AZTEC RULER – ITZCOATL
1438 – 1471 INCA RULER – PACHACUTI
1440 – 1469 AZTEC RULER – MOTECUZOMA I
1502 – 1520 AZTEC RULER – MOTECUZOMA II
1519
ARRIVAL OF SPANISH CONQUERORS IN MEXICO
OCEANIA
11TH CENT
13TH CENT
14TH CENT
BEGINNING OF POPULATION GROWTH IN PACIFIC ISLANDS
EMERGENCE OF DISTINCT SOCIAL CLASSES AND CHIEFLY STATES
CONSTRUCTION OF FISHPONDS IN HAWAI’I
States and Empires in Mesoamerica and North America
THE TOLTECS AND THE MEXICA
Toltecs: Central Mexico again came under their rule; settled mostly at Tula  tapped waters of Tula
river; compact regional empire, large and powerful army; conflicts between ethnic groups  civil
strife  civil strife and nomadic incursion  destruction of Toltec State
The Mexica: Migrants drawn to Central Mexico; people called themselves the Mexica  referred to as
Aztecs – derived from the term Aztlan “the place of seven legendary caves”; caused trouble
(kidnapping women, seizing already cultivated land)  not wanted  traveled around central Mexico
for a century
Tenochtitlan: Marshy region of Lake Texcoco; capital at Tenochtitlan; chinampa system – fertile muck
from lake’s bottom and formed small plots of land called chinampas  very productive  could
harvest up to 7 times a year  water from canals; lake also served as a form of defense
The Aztec Empire: early 15th century  Mexica launched campaigns of imperial expansion  ruler
“the Obsidian Serpent” Itzcoatl and Motecuzoma  advanced against Oaxaca in southwestern Mexico
 Gulf coast and the high plateaus between Tenochtitlan and the Gulf coast. Joined forces with
Texcoco and Tlacopan
Tribute and Trade: triple alliance was made to exact tribute (crops and manufactured items); ruling
elites entrusted some tribute items to officially recognized merchants  exchanged them for local
products; no elaborate bureaucracy or administration; conquered and left local governments in charge,
just collected tribute; no armies but had reputation for military prowess  fear kept subjects in line;
high point – 489 territories
MEXICA SOCIETY
Social Structure: rigidly hierarchical  honors and reward to military elite; all males were potential
warriors but most military elite came from Mexica aristocracy  had the most intense training
Warriors: Land grants, tributes from commoners; most successful warriors formed a council 
selected the ruler, discussed issues, filled government positions; dress reflected status: commoners –
burlaplike garments made of henequen – aristocracy had cotton – warriors donned brightly colored
capes
Mexica Women: almost no public role; large influence within family; honored as warriors; didn’t
inherit property or hold official positions; strict authority of their fathers and husbands; Almost all
Mexica women married  principal function to give birth  bearing of children = to a warrior’s
capture of enemies in battle
Priests: among Mexica’s elite; special education in calendrical and ritual lore; read omens and
explained the forces that drove the world; even became supreme rulers
Cultivators and Slaves: Bulk of Mexica population  commoners lived in hamlet cultivating lands
allocated to their families by community groups known as calpulli  ancestry became less important;
also worked land of aristocracy  tribute payments
Artisans and Merchants: gold, silver; considerable prestige
MEXICA RELIGION
Mexica Gods: Tezcatlipoca – “the Smoking Mirror” – giver and taker of life and the patron deity of
warriors; Quetzalcoatl – “the Feathered Serpent” – supported arts, crafts, and agriculture; gods set
world in motion through acts of individual sacrifice  sacrificial blood-letting: priests pierced earlobes
or penises with cactus spines in honor of the gods shedding their blood
Ritual Bloodletting: Priests presided over sacrificial killing; more emphasis on human sacrifice;
devotion to Huitzilopochtli, patron deity of Mexica warriors; more military success  more sacrifices
to satisfy needs of war god; sustained the sun; took tribute from neighboring people and captives of
war; not viewed as gruesome but essential to world’s survival
PEOPLE AND SOCIETIES OF THE NORTH
Pueblo and Navajo Societies: American Southwest; tapped rivers for irrigation of maize  80% of
their diet; permanent stone and adobe buildings
Iroquois Peoples: Woodlands east of the Mississippi; maize and beans; Owasco People (Upstate New
York)  5 Iroquois nations emerged from Owasco society: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and
Seneca; women were in charge of villages, men in charge of stuff outside villages
Mound-Building Peoples: Enormous earthen mounts – eastern half of North America  stages for
ceremonial rituals, platforms for dwellings, occasional burial sites
Cahokia: Largest surviving mound  East St. Louis, Illinois. 100 Feet High x 1000 feet long x 650
feet wide; 3rd largest structure in the Western Hemisphere before Europeans arrived; center of trade
Trade: No writing; social classes; elaborate network of rivers = trade and travel by canoe; sharp cutting
edges from the Rockies; copper – Great Lakes; Seashells – Florida; Minerals – upper reaches of
Mississippi River; Mica – Southern Appalachian mountains
States and Empires in South America
THE COMING OF THE INCAS
Chucuito: potatoes, llamas, alpacas; highland region on the border between Peru and Bolivia; terraced
fields
Chimu: Coastal lowlands  maize and sweet potatoes; capital city = Chanchan; Inca = original title of
the rulers of a small kingdom in the valley of Cuzco but now means those who spoke the Incas’
Quechua language, or all the subjects of the Incan Empire
The Inca Empire: highland region around Lake Titicaca; Pachacuti  military campaigns controlled
southern and northern highlands and coastal kingdom of Chimu; Modern Peru, most of Ecuador, much
of Bolivia and parts of Chile and Argentina; Rain forests and other river valleys set boundaries to the
east and Pacific Ocean to the West; elite military and administration  staffed bureaucracy; took
hostages of ruling class to encourage obedience; sent in people to colonize revolting areas
Quipu and Inca Administration: large class of bureaucrats; no writing  relief on a mnemonic aid
known as quipu  small cords of various colors and lengths using knots  normally used to convey
statistical information having to do with population, state property, taxes, etc.
Cuzco: Inca capital, central government
Inca Roads: enabled central government at Cuzco to communicate with all parts of empire, dispatch
armies fast; 2 roads – north to south – one through mountains and one along the coast; corps of official
runners
INCA SOCIETY AND RELIGION
Trade: no large classes of merchants or skilled artisans; long-distance trade controlled by government;
individuals couldn’t be independent merchants
Ruling Elites: Chief ruler a deity descended from the son  in theory, he owned everything in the
Incan realm; retained prestige even after death  mummification
Aristocrats and Priests: privileged lives; ear spools – called “big ears” by the Spanish; often came from
royal or aristocratic families; celibate; oversaw religious rituals
Peasants: cultivators; lived in communities known as ayllu, similar to calpulli  consisted of several
families who lived together and shared almost everything; worked on state lands instead of paying
taxes – also owed compulsory services – Men did heavy labor and women did textiles, pottery, and
jewelry
Inca Gods: Inti and Viracocha: ruling classes venerated the sun as a god and major deity  Inti; ruler
Pachacuti showed special favor to Viracocha – creator of the world, humankind, and all else in the
universe; Cult of sun was biggest – 4,000 priests  sacrifices mainly produce of animals such as
llamas and guinea pigs, not humans
Moral Thought: Strong moral dimension; sin = violation of established social or natural order  life
beyond death where you would get rewarded or punished depending on the quality of the life you lead
on Earth; rituals of confession and penance  returned peoples to the good graces of the gods
The Societies of Oceania
THE NOMADIC FORAGERS OF AUSTRALIA
Trade: interacted a lot with neighboring societies; not a lot of accumulated goods; Pearly oyster shells;
limited amount of trade with mariners from New Guinea and the islands of SE Asia
Cultural and Religious Traditions: Conducted rituals designed to ensure continuing supplies of
animals, plant life, and water  focused on local matters
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PACIFIC SOCIETIES
Trade between Island Groups: Clusters of islands linked by mariners; helped ruling elites establish and
maintain harmonious relations with one another. Linked different island groups – Tonga, Samoa. And
Fiji; intermarriage; creating political and social relationships
Long-Distance Voyaging: Difficult to travel between different island groups, no regular trade; sweet
potatoes spread; social changes in Hawai’I  2-way voyages linked Hawai’I with Tahiti and the
Marquesas islands; Hawaiian adoption of fishoooks from Tahiti
Population Growth: fishing societies  domesticated pigs and dogs  ingenious fishponds – little fish
could enter freely big fished trapped; large populations led to environmental degradation and social
strife; Easter Island: pressure on resources  people fought over them  massacres  cannibalism
Nan Madol: On Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands – Sandeleur dynasty, powerful state – stone palace –
central administration at Nan Madol
Development of Social Classes: Especially on large islands  workers became more specialized;
distinct classes emerged  stratified societies with sharp distinctions (Tonga, Tahiti, and Hawaii);
Hawaii also had distinct classes of priests and skilled artisans as well as common classes
The Formation of Chiefly States: strong political leadership; rulers oversaw public affairs; in Tonga
and Hawaii  high chiefs frequently launched campaigns; allocated lands, organized armies; Hawaii –
classes of high chiefs known as ali’i nui intermarried and ate best food that was kapu (“taboo”) to
commoners; a kapu forbade commoners to approach or even cast a shadow on the ali’i nui
Polynesian Religion: High chiefs worked with priests; gods of war and agriculture were common
throughout Pacific Islands; had deities particular to their own regions and interests; temple structure
known as marae (or heiau in Hawaii) often had several terraced floors. In Tonga and Samoa temples
were made of timber and thatched roofs; Polynesia were platforms in open-air courtyards