A2 Physical Education
Sport Psychology
PERSONALITY
Revision Guide
Mr Leighton
Personality TIPS!
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Make sure you learn the specific definition of
personality!
Have awareness of the links between
personality and sports performance.
It is important to understand the NATURE
(trait) V NURTURE (social learning) and
interactionist perspectives of behaviour.
Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each
perspective.
Be aware of the problems associated with the
use of personality profiling in sport.
Personality
“The sum total of an individuals
characteristics which make him
unique” (Hollander).
“Personality is the more or less stable and
enduring organisation of a persons character,
temperament, intellect and physique which
determines the unique adjustment to the
environment” (Eysenck).
Personality Types
TRAITS
INTROVERT
Shy, timid,
reserved, aloof,
self sufficient
EXTROVERT
Adventurous,
confident,
Sociable,
Group dependent,
enthusiastic
NARROW BAND APPROACH,
GIRDANO, 1990
TYPE ‘A’
Highly competitive,
Strong desire to succeed,
Works fast, likes to control,
Prone to suffer stress
TYPE ‘B’
Non-competitive,
Unambitious,
Works more slowly,
Does not enjoy control
Less prone to stress
NATURE
Personality Theories
Trait Theory
“People are born with established
personality characteristics”
Inherited at birth.
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Stable
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Enduring
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consistent in all situations.
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF
PERSONALITY
+ve = Can be easily measured
through questionnaires
-ve = Does not take into account
environmental influences. It is
not a true indicator of behaviour.
CATTELL (1965) identified 16
personality traits
INTROVERT & EXTROVERT
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V’s
NURTURE
Social Learning Theory
(Bandura)
“All behaviour is learned through
interaction with the environment”
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF
ENVIRONMENT
-ve = Does not consider inherited
behaviour (traits)
Interactionist Theory
“Behaviour occurs from the
interaction between inherited traits
and learned experiences”
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF
PERSONALITY × ENVIRNOMENT
Personality Theories
Concentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967)
Role Related Behaviour – Surface of personality
Typical Response – Your usual response in
most situations
The Psychological Core – The ‘real you’
The boundary line of each layer gets wider as you get
closer to the centre of the model which shows that each
layer is harder to enter. As you move closer to the centre,
your ‘real’ personality begins to surface
Personality Theories
Psychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933)
ID
Basic Instinct
(no conscious
control)
EGO
Conscious
link with reality
SUPER EGO
Moral Arm
(social conscience)
****THINK OF
AGGRESSION AS AN
EXAMPLE!****
ID, EGO & SUPER
EGO interact to
produce individual
patterns of
behaviour in sport.
Personality is formed from the
conflict of SEEKING,
RELEASING and INHIBITING
behaviour.
Personality Theories
Eysenck’s Personality Types
Personality traits run
across 2 continuums:
INTROVERT:
unsociable, shy &
nervous
NEUROTIC
(UNSTABLE)
EXTROVERT:
sociable, outgoing &
lively
INTROVERT
EXTROVERT
STABLE
STABLE: calm, eventempered, controlled
7 logical
UNSTABLE: anxious,
moody, unpredictable
& illogical
Personality Testing
Methods of Testing
1) Observation
2) Psychometric methods: self report questionnaires (16
personality factor questionnaire designed by CATTELL)
Problems
1) Questionnaires, observations and self-reports are not
reliable as people can fix answers.
2) SCEPTICAL APPROACH: Evidence is too general – personality
alone can not predict behaviour.
3) CREDULOUS APPROACH: Although there is a link between
personality research and performance in sport, there is lack
of evidence to support this.
Attitudes TIPS!
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Make sure you understand how attitudes are
formed and influenced.
You need to be able to explain how attitudes
can be changed.
Try to understand the links between attitude
and behaviour in sport.
ATTITUDE OBJECTS
The people, subject or
situation towards which an
attitude is directed.
What is an ATTITUDE?
ATTITUDES – A learned behavioural
predisposition. (linked with personality)
UNSTABLE
LEARNED
DIRECTED TOWARDS
ATTITUDE OBJECTS
CAN BE
CHANGED/
CONTROLLED
ENDURING EMOTIONAL
& BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE
Formation of Attitudes
COACHES/
TEACHERS
PARENTS
FRIENDS/
PEERS
PAST
EXPERIENCES
PREDUJICE
ATTITUDES
MEDIA
Attitudes are mainly formed through experiences.
Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other people.
Triadic Model of Attitudes
This is
known as the
information
component
knowledge and beliefs
example : fitness training
keeps me fit
This is known
as the emotional
component
AFFECTIVE
COGNITIVE
feelings and emotions
example : I enjoy training
ATTITUDE
to regular exercise
This concerns
how a person
intends to
behave towards
an attitude object
BEHAVIOURAL
intended behaviour
example : I attend training
sessions regularly
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
(Festinger)
If a person hold two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other
an element of discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called
DISSONANCE.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the
conflicting ideas could be lessened and therefore an attitude would
change.
Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can
change the cognitive component.
Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the
affective component.
If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make
execution easier, the behavioural component of attitude can be changed.
Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE from AS SKILL
Persuasive Communication Theory
You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading
someone to change their attitude.
Would these people persuade you or would they just cause you stress?
Persuasive Communication Theory
1. The Persuader
Significant other
with high status
3. The recipients
Easy to changed
an attitude if the
recipient really
wishes to be
changed
2. The Message
Positive to initiate
the change
PERSUASIVE
COMMUNICATION
the person must
- pay attention
- understand
- accept
- retain
the message being given
the coach must
- be expert
- be trustworthy
4. The situation
The presence of
other persuaders
the message must
- be clear
- be unambiguous
- be balanced between
pros and cons
TASK…………
You are a GCSE PE pupil.
How could persuasive
communication change your
negative attitude towards
cross country?
ANSWER…………
1. A significant other, e.g. teacher/captain persuades you that
cross country has excellent fitness benefits for a GCSE PE
pupil. The teacher explains that they can chose cross country
as one of their 4 sports.
2. The teacher tells you it will improve your practical grade if you
opt for cross country.
3. You understand that this could improve your overall practical
grade so you begin to realise the benefits of taking part.
4. Other pupils in your GCSE class share positive experiences of
cross country with you and actively encourage you to take part.
TASK…………
How could a physical education
teacher change the negative
attitude that a pupil may have
towards swimming?
ANSWER…..
• Educate the pupil about the benefits of swimming
• Use cognitive dissonance theory
• Persuasive communication from a significant other, e.g.
teacher
• Set achievable goals to ensure pupil achieves success
and experiences enjoyment.
• Offer rewards, e.g. praise, trophies.
• Familiarise with role models from within the sport of
swimming.
• Use floats to make execution of some strokes easier.
• Attribution retraining.
To conclude……….
Attitudes are generally poor predictors of
behaviour.
•
• Social and situational factors influence
actual behaviour very strongly.
• “Behavioural intention is the strongest
predictor of behaviour (Fishbein, 1974).”
Achievement Motivation TIPS!
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You need to understand the meaning of the
term ‘achievement motivation’.
Make sure you know the characteristics of
the different personality types – TAS and
TAF.
You need to be aware of the links between
personality and the motive to achieve.
It is important to make links between TAS
and TAF and ‘attributions’ for success and
failure.
Achievement Motivation
Achievement Motivation is a concept developed by
sports psychologists to link PERSONALITY and
COMPETITIVENESS.
The major issue centres on the extent to which
an INDIVIDUAL IS MOTIVATED TO ATTAIN
SUCCESS.
Success in sport is measured against some type
of COMPETITIVE GOAL.
Types of Goals
According to BIDDLE, there are several types of goal against
which success can be judged:
• MASTERY or TASK GOALS: Associated with selfimprovement, e.g. trying to achieve a PB in athletics (the same
as PROCESS GOALS).
• EGO or ABILITY GOALS: Involve a comparison against ones
rivals, e.g. beating everyone else to win the club tennis
tournament (the same as OUTCOME GOALS)
• SOCIALLY APPROVED GOALS: Involves seeking social
reinforcement as a measure of success, e.g. winning to earn
approval from parents or coaches.
THINK BACK TO GOALS FROM AS SKILL!
Atkinson & McClelland (1976) –
Interactionist View
In any challenging situation, everyone will
have both a ‘need to achieve’ and a ‘need to
avoid failure’. Whichever feeling is stronger
will determine whether the task is accepted
or declined.
Competitive orientation is generated
through personality and situational factors
Personality Factors
A = TAS
someone with a high need to achieve
will probably have a low need to
avoid failure and will choose
difficult or demanding tasks which
are more risky, e.g.
the hard route up a rock face
B = TAF
someone with a high need to avoid
failure will probably have a low
need to achieve and will choose
tasks which are less risky and
more easily achieved, e.g. the easy
route up the rock face
TAS = Tendency to APPROACH
success
TAF = Tendency to AVOID failure
Situational Factors
A =
If the probability of success low
(competing against the world
champion) you will strive very hard to
win (incentive high). You will be highly
chuffed if you win.
B =
If the probability of success high
(competing in local club match) you
don’t need to try as hard to win
(incentive low and expect to win
easily). It is not so pleasing if you
win.
What can the coach do?
IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)
• Increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and
satisfaction
• Ensure that goals are achievable
• Ensure that at least some situations guarantee success
and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line
with progress
• Ensure that tasks are challenging
• Ensure that the probability of success is good
• Ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the
race worth winning?)
What can the coach do?
REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID
FAILURE (NaF)
• Reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of
performer worrying about failure
• Focus negative feedback on effort rather than
ability. This avoids the performer tending to believe
that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of
ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned
helplessness.
• Avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable
(such as performing against a much superior opponent)
if this is not possible alter the criteria for success
(you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals).
Group Dynamics TIPS!
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Be able to define the terms ‘group’ and ‘team’.
You need to understand Steiner’s model of group
performance.
Be able to explain the Ringlemann effect and
social loafing and how they damage the
cohesiveness of a team.
Learn the factors affecting the cohesiveness of a
group and how any breakdowns can be prevented.
Learn the characteristics of an effective leader.
Describe emergent and prescribed leaders.
You need to be able to understand the different
perspectives on and theories of leadership.
Groups
“Groups are those social aggregates that
involve mutual awareness and the potential
for interaction” (McGrath)
A collective identity
GROUPS
(Carron)
A sense of shared purpose
A clear structure for
communication
Group Cohesion
“The extent to which a group sticks
together in pursuit of a common goal.”
TASK COHESION
The way team members
work together to
successfully complete
a task, e.g. a football team sets
Out to win by adopting attacking
Tactics at home & away matches
Vital in INTERACTIVE
Sports, e.g. hockey
SOCIAL COHESION
The personal relationships
within a group which relies
on individuals enjoying
social interaction, e.g. strong
Bond developed whilst on tour.
Vital in CO-ACTIVE sports,
e.g. track and field
Group Dynamics
“The social processes operating within the
group between individual members.”
SUB GROUPS
Small groups
contained within
the whole group
TO ACHIEVE COHESION
• Break down cliques
and sub groups
• Separate pairs
• Integrate isolates
GROUP DYNAMIC
SOCIOGRAM
The best way of
illustrating the
group dynamics of
a team.
Team sports rely on
units within the team
Working closely
together
Steiner’s Model
ACTUAL
=
POTENTIAL
-
LOSSES DUE TO
PRODUCTIVITY
PRODUCTIVITY
FAULTY PROCESSES
(AP)
(PP)
(FP)
The team
performance at
any given time
(due to
successful
interaction)
The maximum
capability of
the group
when
cohesiveness is
strongest
Factors that go wrong
in team performance
which impede/ prevent
group cohesion e.g. coordination losses &
motivational losses
GROUP COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT BINDS A GROUP
TOGETHER, HELPING TO PREVENT FAULTY PROCESSES.
Faulty Processes
Co-ordination Losses
Motivation Losses
o These occur when the
‘operational effectiveness’ of
the group cannot be sustained
for the whole match.
o This may occur if the task is
too difficult.
o Planned strategies/tactics
may go wrong due to positional
error or bad timing, e.g. Line
out in rugby.
A co-ordination loss that leads to a
breakdown in team work is called the
RINGLEMANN EFFECT.
Problems with team co-ordination are
more likely to increase as the number
of team members increase.
o Also an individual might suffer
loss of motivation causing them
to withdraw effort and coast
through that part of the game.
A motivation loss that leads to a
reduction in effort is called
SOCIAL LOAFING. This is called
when an individuals efforts go
unnoticed or when someone feels
like the others on their team are
not trying hard enough. People with
low SC tend to be loafers.
Group Locomotion
“ The process that explains the reasons
why the group has formed. It symbolises
the activity of the team.”
For locomotion to be
efficient there must
be a LEADER to
ensure the coordination of the
team.
****Don’t always
assume that good
players make good
leaders! Make sure you
know the
characteristics of a
good leader****
Leadership
Understand the
needs of
others
Good
communication
skills
Ambition
Think of Woody
from Toy Story!
Determination
What makes a good
Leader?
Highly
developed
perception
skills
Experience
Vision
Good at making
decisions
Empathy with team
members
Selection of a Leader
EMERGENT LEADERS: Already belongs
to the group & selection is made
formally, e.g. by vote or interview.
PRECRIBED LEADERS: Selected from
outside of the group and is known as an
external appointment.
Leadership Theories
IS A LEADER BORN OR MADE?
o TRAIT APPROACH: Leaders are born with the skills
necessary to take charge……however, although certain traits may
be helpful in leadership, they are not essential, so this theory is
NOT A GOOD PREDICTOR OF BEHAVIOUR.
o SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: The skills of leadership can be
acquired by copying others and then developed through
experiences. Copying successful role models is called ‘vicarious
reinforcement.’ This DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE
TRAIT PERSPECTIVE.
o INTERACTIONIST THEORY: Leaders emerge because of
inherited abilities (traits) and learned skills. Interactionist
theory gives a MORE REALISTIC EXPLANATION OF HUMAN
BEHAVIOURS IN SPORT.
Styles of Leadership
Autocratic Leaders
(task orientated):
• Tend to make all
decisions
• Motivated to complete a
task as quickly and
effectively as possible
• Authoritarian style –
they do not take into
account the groups
opinions
• Does not share
responsibility
• Effective when quick
decisions need to be made
Democratic
Leaders
(social/personal
orientated):
• Shares decisions
and responsibilities
with group
• Interested in
developing interpersonal
relationships within
the team
• Effective in coactive sports
Laisser-faire
Leaders:
• Leader stands
aside and allows the
group to make their
own decisions
• Members of this
type of group tend
to be aggressive
towards one
another when
mistakes occurred
and they gave up
easily.
Fiedler’s Contingency
Model
According to Fiedler, the correct style of leadership to adopt depends on the
‘favourableness’ of the situation.
Highly favourable situation
Highly unfavourable situation
Leaders position is strong
Leaders position is weak
Task is simple with clear structure
Task is complex with vague
structure
Warm group and leader relations
Hostile group and leader relations
AUTOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in both the MOST
FAVOURABLE and the LEAST FVOURABLE situations.
DEMOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in MODERATELY
FAVOURABLE situations.
Multidimensional Model of
Sports Leadership
LEADER
CHARACTERISTICS
ACTUAL LEADER
REQUIRED
BEHAVIOUR
BEHAVIOUR
the way in which the coach
normally goes about his job
what is expected by team
management of the coach
performance /
satisfaction
PREFERRED LEADER
BEHAVIOUR
the way in which members prefer
their coach to relate to them
SITUATION
CHARACTERISTICS
MEMBER's
CHARACTERISTICS
Multidimensional Model of Sports
Leadership
CHELLANDURAI believed that the effectiveness of the group could be judged
on:
1. The degree of success accomplished during a task
2. The extent to which the group experienced satisfaction while being led to the
goal.
SITUATIONAL, LEADER AND GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISCS interact to
determine the behaviour adopted by the leader (these are ANTECEDENTS)
REQUIRED, ACTUAL AND PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR are 3 types of leader behaviour
that would be guided by these antecedents.
If all three of the leader behaviours are CONGRUENT (coincide exactly) then
members will be highly satisfied and produce high group performance.
Effective leadership has taken place if the ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR HAS SURPASSED
THE SITUATIONAL DEMANDS AND THE STYLE HAS MET WITH THE APPROVAL
OF THE GROUP.
Mental Preparation TIPS!
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You need to understand the meaning and
links between commitment, selfconfidence, concentration and control of
emotion.
Be able to explain each term in the
context of mental preparation for sport
performance.
You must be able to identify and explain
the relevant theories associated with
each term.
Mental Preparation
COMMITMENT
4
C’ s
SELF-CONFIDENCE
CONCENTRATION
EMOTIONAL
CONTROL
Concentration
LINKED
WITH
AROUSAL!
“A state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific aim or
activity.”
“Mistakes in top level sport happen not because technique is suspect,
but because of attentional errors” (MARTENS)
When AROUSAL IS LOW the PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS and an excessive
number of environmental cues enter into the information processing system.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS NOT in operation and CONCENTRATION ON
RELEVANT INFORMATION IS DIFFICULT.
**********INFORMATION OVERLOAD OCCURS **********
LOW AROUSAL
PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS
LIMITED
SELECTIVE ATTENTION = LACK OF CONCENTRATION
Cue Utilisation Theory
This theory predicts ‘THE SELECTION OF THE MOST RELEVANT
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AT THE OPTIMAL AROUSAL LEVEL’.
As arousal increases the perceptual field will adjust to the ideal width
enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant cues/information.
Selective attention is fully operational and the potential to concentrate
is maximised.
OPTIMAL AROUSAL
PERCEPTUAL FIELD AT IDEAL
WIDTH
SELECTIVE ATTENTIONS IN OPERATION =
CONCENTRATION IS MAXIMISED!
Beyond this optimal threshold (over aroused), the perceptual focus narrows
excessively and the relevant cues may be missed. The athlete appears highly
agitated and panics. This condition is known as HYPER-VIGILANCE or PANIC.
HIGH AROUSAL
PERCEPTUAL FIELD NARROWS
RELEVANT CUES MISSED = HYPER-VIGILANCE & PANIC
NIDEFFER’S
ATTENTIONAL STYLES
All players have a preferred
attentional style. To improve
performance it is necessary to
operate successfully in all styles.
EXTERNAL
BROAD
NARROW
INTERNAL
Think of the
difference
between a C &
GA in Netball
NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL
STYLES
BROAD
- a player concentrates on the whole
game
- all players’ positions and
movements
- open skills
NARROW
- the player concentrates on one
aspect of the game
- the goalkeeper
- closed skills
INTERNAL
- the player decides to concentrate
on his own technique
EXTERNAL
-the player focuses on the position
of his opposite number
Emotional Control
AROUSAL, ANXIETY, STRESS and ACTIVATION all relate to
MOTIVATION. Arousal will improve performance up to an optimal point,
however this optimal threshold changes or ‘shifts’ for every individual
and different situation.
Task Type
Personality
-Extroverts perform
best when arousal is
high (seek
stimulation of RAS)
- Introverts
perform best at low
arousal (sensitive
RAS system)
- Simple/ Gross
skills are performed
better in high
arousal, e.g. shot put
- Complex/ fine
skills are performed
better in low
arousal, e.g. spin
bowling in cricket
Stage of Learning
Experience
-Autonomous stage
perform better in
high arousal
- Experienced
performer is
best in high
arousal
- Cognitive/
associative phase
perform better in
low arousal
- Novice
performer is
best in low
arousal
Individual Zone of Optimal
Functioning (Hanin)
Athlete A
(low ZOF)
Athlete B
(moderate ZOF)
Athlete C
(high ZOF)
In zone
Out of zone
(best performance)
Out of zone
In zone
(best performance)
Out of zone
Out of zone
In zone
(best performance)
Increasing Arousal
An athlete will enter the zone when arousal is at an optimum level and the
situation matches the athlete’s strongest attentional style.
Individual Zone of Optimal
Functioning (Hanin)
Different people perform better under different (arousal) conditions:
Personality
Low Zone of INTROVERT
Functioning
(low
arousal)
High Zone
of
Functioning
(high
arousal)
EXTROVERT
Task Type
Stage of
Learning
Experience
SIMPLE/
GROSS
SKILLS, E.G.
SHOT PUT
COGNITIVE/
ASSOCIATIVE
PHASE
NOVICE
PERFORMERS
COMPLEX/
FINE
SKILLS, E.G.
SPIN
BOWLING
AUTONOMOUS
EXPERIENCED
PERFORMER
Individual Zone of Optimal
Functioning (Hanin)………
Teachers and coaches should guide the performer towards their personal
‘optimal threshold’ or ‘individual zone of optimal functioning’.
THE
ATHLETE
FEELS IN
FULL
CONTROL
EXECUTION OF
THE SKILL BRINGS
ENJOYMENT AND
SATISFACTION
EFFORTLESS
PERFORMANCE
IN THE
ZONE!
ATTENTION AND
CONCENTRATION
OF THE
PERFORMER IS
FOCUSED
Anxiety
TRAIT ANXIETY: Genetically inherited. These people appear to be anxious at
all times. This tends to be permanent and relatively stable.
STATE ANXIETY: This fluctuates in response to a given situation and is
associated with arousal. It is a learned behavioural response, but can be
controlled and manipulated to facilitate optimal performance.
(SPIELBERGER)
SOMATIC (physical) RESPONSE: Follows the inverted U hypothesis and refers to
physiological changes. Somatic responses include excesses muscular tension, heart and
respiration rates, resulting in impaired movement. This condition will not allow the
performer to enter a ‘peak flow’ state.
COGNITIVE (psychological) RESPONSE: Reflects increasing worry about performance.
They could become increasingly apprehensive and develop doubts and negative thoughts.
Attentional changes occur which negatively impact on the information processing system.
If the athlete experiences worry, he or she will not attain a ‘peak flow’ state.
Anxiety
‘Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial imbalance between the individual’s
perception of their ability and their perception of the demands and importance
of the situation.’ (MARTENS)
Perception of the situational
Demands.
e.g. I must win my leg of the relay if my
team is to have the chance of winning.
ANXIETY
Perception of ability to cope.
e.g. I am not as good as my
opponent
Perception of the importance of the situation.
e.g. The result of this competition hinges
on this relay race.
Anxiety Management
COGNITIVE
METHODS
SOMATIC
METHODS
IMAGERY
THOUGHT STOPPING
POSITIVE TALK
RATIONAL THINKING
PROGRESSIVE
MUSCULAR
RELAXTATION
BIOFEEDBACK
PEAK FLOW
PEAK FLOW: Optimal experience that facilitates best performance and is
intrinsically valuable. (Csikzentmimalyi)
 Peak flow occurs when somatic
High somatic arousal
Low
cognitive
Arousal
anxiety
Excitement,
happiness
Anxiety,
anger
anxiety has reached an appropriate
threshold and cognitive anxiety is low.
High
cognitive
Arousal
Relaxation,
Drowsiness
Boredom
fatigue
anxiety
Low somatic arousal
During these rare moments in sport, the athlete
assumes control over all internal and environmental
variables and a time of greatest happiness and selffulfilment is experienced.
 flow state is attained when the
performer has a balanced perception
of the demands of the situation and
his/her ability to cope.
 a high incentive value is to be gained
from a challenge that is both realistic
and attainable.
The focus of attention and
concentration is maximised.
 there is a self-confident belief that
nothing could go wrong.
 the situation suits the athlete’s
strongest attentional style.
Competitive Effects on Sport
Performance TIPS!
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You need to be able to recognise the difference between
aggression, assertion and channelled aggression.
You need to understand the main theories of aggression.
Be able to describe how aggressive tendencies can be limited.
Understand the difference between social facilitation and
social inhibition.
Describe the major theories of social facilitation and be able to
link them to arousal.
Try to understand the homefield advantage phenomenon.
Be able to suggest strategies to combat social inhibition.
Aggression
“Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or
verbal means.” (BULL)
“Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another
human being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.” (BARON)
HOSTILE (OR REACTIVE)
AGGRESSION
Main aim is to harm and inflict
injury.
Aggressive actions are outside
the rules of the game
‘Hostile destructiveness’
(PARENS)
Hostile aggression involves
anger.
This type of aggression needs
to be eliminated from sport!
INSTRUMENTAL (OR
CHANNELLED)
AGGRESSION
Actions within the rules of
the game.
Although PRIME motive
is the successful execution
of the skill, there is still
the intention to harm.
Anger is not evident.
Present in many sporting
situations.
ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR
No intention to harm.
Strictly within the rules
and spirit of the game.
Robust, but functional play.
Primarily focused on
completing the skill
successfully.
‘Non-hostile selfprotective mastery
behaviour’ (PARENS, 1987)
Antecedents of Aggression
HOSTILE
CROWDS
NATURE
OF THE
GAME
WIDE
DIVISION
BETWEEN
SCORES
FRUSTRATION
CAUSED BY POOR
PERFORMANCE,
OPPOSITION OR
REFS DECISIONS.
AGGRESSION
PREVIOUSLY
DEVELOPED GRUDGES
OR SCORES TO SETTLE
VENUE…AWAY
TEAM
HIGH
AROUSAL
LEVELS
EXTRINSIC
REWARDS
Theories of Aggression
INSTINCT THEORY (TRAIT PERSPECTIVE)
- Proposed by FRUED but
developed but LORENZ in 1966.
- ‘Aggression is genetically inherited
and that trait of violence lies within everyone
due to a basic instinct to dominate.’
- ‘Death instinct’ (FREUD)
- ‘Aggressive energy is constantly building
up and needs to be released’ (LORENZ)
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
- Proposed by BANDURA, 1966 but
developed by LEAKEY.
- Aggression is not biologically based
but is nurtured through environmental forces.
- Learned by watching and copying
role models and it becomes an
excepted mode of behaviour if reinforced.
FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
– INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
- Proposed by DOLLARD.
- ‘Frustration develops when goal-directed
behaviour or NACH is blocked.’
-It is instinctive to fulfil the need
to release frustration.
- Instinct theory – aggression is the goal.
- Aggression = successful = catharsis
- Aggression = unsuccessful = more frustration
AGGRESSION CUE HYPOTHESIS
(BERKOWITZ, 1969)
– INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
- Builds upon DOLLARD’S work.
-Frustration leads to an increase in arousal which,
in some situations will result in aggression.
-Cues = baseball bats, violent acts being witnessed,
nature of the game will trigger aggression if
arousal is high.
-Best players have the ability/temperament
to control frustration and arousal.
Methods to eliminate
aggression
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Punish aggressive play.
Withdraw violent players from the situation.
Stress performance rather than the outcome.
Emphasise non-aggressive role models.
Make use of cognitive strategies to prevent
aggressive play.
Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviour and
negatively reinforce aggressive behaviour.
Change athletes perceptions of the situation.
Implement stress management techniques.
Lower arousal levels
Social Facilitation/Inhibition
SOCIAL FACILITATION: The presence of an audience positively increases
arousal levels and performance is enhanced.
SOCIAL INHIBITION: A negative effect on performance is experienced due
to the attendance of an audience.
TRIPLETT (1898) –
ZAJONC
1st Sport Psych
Experiment:
- The ‘mere’ presence of others
is sufficient to increase the
arousal level of the performer.
The presence of others…
-Arouses competitive
drive
- Releases energy
- Increases the speed of
performance
-This uses ‘drive theory’ to
predict the effect of others on
performance.
- As arousal increases (as would
happen when spectators are
present), there is a greater
likelihood of the dominant
response occurring.
COTTRELL’S
EVALUATION
APPREHENSION
- In some
circumstances the
audience can have a
calming effect.
- Increases in arousal
were only present when
the performer
perceived that the
audience was assessing
performance.
Social Facilitation/Inhibition
Homefield
Advantage:
Distraction/ Conflict
Theory (Barron, 1986)
Strategies to Combat Social
Inhibition:
-Large supportive
home crowds have
a positive effect
on performance.
-Individuals can only
attend to a limited
amount of
environmental cues.
- Practice selective attention.
- Most evident in
indoor sports such
as basketball.
- Spectators demand
the same attention as
other players, resulting
in more competition for
attentional space.
- Crowd gets close
to the action,
increasing audience
influence. This is
called the
‘proximity effect.’
- Complex actions would
therefore be impaired
in front of large
crowds.
- Use imagery, mental rehearsal to
block out audience effects.
- Ensure essential skills are overlearned and grooved.
- introduce evaluative others into
practice.
- Raise athletes’ awareness of the
zone of optimal functioning.
- Incorporate stress management
into training.
- Appropriate use of attribution
Attribution Theory TIPS!
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You should be able to identify the
reasons for success and failure in
sport.
You need to understand ‘Weiner’s
Attribution Model’ and be able to
relate it to specific sporting situations.
Learn the definitions of ‘mastery
orientation’ and ‘learned helplessness’.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory looks at the common reasons coaches and
players give for their success or failure in sport.
Weiner’s Attribution
Model
LOCUS OF CAUSALITY
INTERNAL
STABLE
STABILITY
UNSTABLE
ability
EXTERNAL
task difficulty
'we were more 'the opposition are
world champions'
skilful'
effort
'we tried hard'
LOCUS OF CAUSALITY
is the performance outcome caused by
- INTERNAL factors
under the control of the performer
ability / effort
- EXTERNAL factors
beyond the control of the performer
task difficulty / luck
luck
'the court was
slippy'
STABILITY
is the performance outcome caused by
- STABLE factors
fixed factors which don’t change with
time
ability / task difficulty
- UNSTABLE factors
factors which can vary with time
effort / luck
Attribution Theory
HIGH ACHIEVERS
attribute success to internal factors
and attribute failure to external factors
HIGH ACHIEVER
LOW ACHIEVERS
attribute success to external factors
and attribute failure to internal factors
LOW ACHIEVER
motivation? high motive to achieve success
low motive to avoid failure
focuses on pride on success
low motive to achieve success
high motive to avoid failure
focuses on shame and worry about
failure
attributions
ascribes success to stable
internal and controllable factors
ascribes failure to unstable
external uncontrollable factors
ascribes success to unstable
external uncontrollable factors
ascribes failure to stable
internal controllable factors
goals adopted
task choice
adopts task oriented goals
seeks challenging tasks and
competitive situations
performance
performs well in front of
evaluative audiences
adopts outcome oriented goals
avoids challenge, seeks very difficult
or very easy tasks / competition
performs badly in front of
evaluative audiences
Attribution Retraining
The athlete has little control over ability, luck or task
difficulty but has complete control over EFFORT. Effort is
internal and unstable and can be changed by the performer.
The coach changes the usual external attributions for failure
into internal, unstable controllable factors.
Attributing a lack of success to internal and unstable factors will
help to prevent learned helplessness.
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
A belief acquired over time that one has no control over events
and that failure is inevitable. A feeling of ‘hopelessness.’