Mata kuliah
Dosen Pembuat
Tahun
: J0754 - Pengelolaan Organisasi Entrepreneurial
: D3122 - Rudy Aryanto
: 2009
Motivasi :
Latar Belakang dan Teori-Teori
Chapter 5
Learning Objectives
– Define motivation in practical terms that would be meaningful to
managers in organizations
– Compare the content and process explanations and theories of
motivation
– Describe how equity theory explains employees’ reactions to pay
and compensation decisions
Learning Objectives
– Discuss why individual needs and preferences change over the
course
of a career
– Explain the motivational force for a behavior, action, or task
• As a function of three distinct
perceptions made by an individual
Motivation Puzzle
• Managers must excel at addressing
the needs and goals of employees
– No one motivational approach works for all
• Individuals differ in…
–
–
–
–
Their desired rewards
How they attempt to satisfy those needs
How they view the fairness of rewards
Their view of the work environment
Key Employee Differences
• Veterans (born 1922-45)
– Believe in hard work, dedication, sacrifice, and respect for
authority
– Have a great deal or organizational knowledge and remain
influential
• Boomers (born 1946-64)
– Characterized by optimism, teamwork, healthy lifestyles,
personal gratification
– Will “go the extra mile” to get the job done
– Enjoy their careers
Key Employee Differences
• Gen Xers (born 1965-76)
– Understands the importance of diversity, work-life balance, selfreliance, fun, and informality
– More cynical than other generations
– Their “it’s only a job” attitude puts them
in direct conflict with Boomers
Key Employee Differences
• Gen Yers (born 1977-97)
– Nexters, Internet Gen, or Echo Boomers
• Workplace preferences
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
A fair boss
Belief in the company
Workplace safety
Training and learning opportunities
Flexible work schedules
Constructive feedback
Timely and fair reward systems
Motivation
• Theorists have different interpretations and place
emphasis on different factors
–
–
–
–
–
Motivation is related to behavior and performance
Goal-directedness is involved
It results from events and processes, whether internal or external
Research is still evolving
Many aspects of human motivation
remain unexplained
Motivation
• Motivation is the result of forces acting on an
employee that initiate and direct behavior
Motivation
• Motivated employees
–
–
–
–
–
–
Look for the best way to do their job
Produce high-quality products or services
Are more likely to be productive
Want to work and become part of the team
Help, support, and encourage coworkers
Are self-confident and decisive
Motivation Starting Point
• Individuals
– All have a deficiency or lack something
at a particular point in time
– Are more susceptible to motivational efforts when in need
• Deficiencies may be
– Physiological
– Psychological
– Sociological
The Motivational Process
I
VI
Employee
reassesses need
deficiencies
V
Need
deficiencies
II Search for
ways to
satisfy needs
The
Employee
Rewards or
punishments
III
Goal-directed
behavior
IV
Performance
(evaluate goals
accomplished)
Motivation Theories
• Content Motivation Theories
– Focuses on factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain,
stop behavior
– These factors can only be inferred
• Process Motivation Theories
– Describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is energized,
directed, sustained, and stopped
Managerial Effectiveness
• Content theories suggest that managers
–
–
–
–
Determine what employee needs trigger desired behaviors
Offer meaningful rewards that satisfy those needs
Know when to offer rewards to optimize behavior
Understand that need deficiencies do
not repeat in a regular pattern
Managerial Effectiveness
• Process theories suggest that managers understand
– The process of motivation
– How individuals make choices based
on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments
Theory Founders
• Content theory founders
–
–
–
–
Maslow…need hierarchy
Alderfer…ERG theory
Herzberg…two-factor theory
McClelland…learned needs
• Process theory founders
–
–
–
–
Vroom…expectancy of choices
Adams…equity
Skinner…reinforcement
Locke…goal-setting
Application of Theories
• Content theory
– Managers must be aware of differences
in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique
• Process theory
– Managers must understand the process
of motivation and how individuals make choices based on
performances, rewards, and accomplishments
Content Theories of Motivation
• Human needs, as defined by Maslow’s need hierarchy
–
–
–
–
–
Physiological
Safety and security
Belongingness, social, and love
Esteem
Self-actualization
Content Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s need hierarchy assumes
– A person attempts to satisfy basic needs before trying to satisfy
upper-level needs
– Lower-level needs must be satisfied before a higher-level need
begins
to control a person’s behavior
– A satisfied need ceases
to motivate
Content Theories of Motivation
• Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of
needs
– Existence… satisfied by such things
as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions
– Relatedness… satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal
relationships
– Growth… satisfied by making creative
or productive contributions
Relationships Among
Frustration, Importance, Satisfaction of Needs
ERG Theory
Frustration
of growth needs
Importance
of growth needs
Satisfaction
of growth needs
Frustration of
relatedness needs
Importance of
relatedness needs
Satisfaction of
relatedness needs
Frustration
of existence needs
Importance
of existence needs
Satisfaction of
existence needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Extrinsic factors
– Pay, status, and working conditions
– Known as dissatisfiers or hygiene factors
• Intrinsic factors
– Achievement, increased
responsibility, recognition
– Known as satisfiers or
motivators
Traditional View vs. Herzberg
I. TRADITIONAL VIEW
High job dissatisfaction
High job satisfaction
II. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEW
Low job
satisfaction
Motivators
Feeling of achievement
Meaningful work
Opportunity for advancement Increased responsibility
Recognition
Opportunity for growth
Low job
dissatisfaction
Hygienes
Pay
Status
Working conditions
Fringe benefits
Interpersonal relations
High job
satisfaction
High job
dissatisfaction
Job security
Policies/Procedures
Learned Needs Theory
• A person with a strong need will use
appropriate behaviors to satisfy the need
– Needs are learned from the culture of a society
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
• Achievement (n Ach)
– High n Ach persons prefer moderate goals they think they can
achieve
• Affiliation (n Aff)
– High n Aff persons prefer immediate and reliable performance
feedback
• Power (n Pow)
– High n Ach persons like to be responsible for solving problems
Measuring n Ach Needs
• Needs are measured with the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT)
– A person is shown a picture and asked to write a story
about it
– People tend to write stories that reflect their dominant
needs
n Ach Needs
• McClelland encourages managers to
– Provide periodic feedback on performance
– Point out models of achievement to employees
– Work with employees to improve their
self-image
– Introduce realism into all work-related topics
Comparison of Content Theories
• Maslow’s need hierarchy
– Individuals satisfy basic needs before directing behavior toward
higher-order needs
• Alderfer’s ERG theory
– Those who fail to satisfy growth needs become frustrated,
regress, and refocus attention on lower-order needs
Comparison of Content Theories
• Herzberg’s two-factor theory
– Some job features and characteristics result in motivation
– Others create a comfortable work environment, but don’t motive
• McClelland’s learned needs
– Needs are learned from the culture
– Training and education can enhance and influence a person’s
need strength
Expectancy Theory
• A person who is faced with
a set of first-level outcomes will select
one based on
– The strength (valence) of the desire to
achieve a second-level state
– The perception of the relationship
between firstand second-level outcomes
Expectancy Theory (Varoom)
• A process governing choices among alternative forms of
voluntary activity
– Most behaviors are under a person’s voluntary control and are
consequently motivated
• When faced with a set of first-level outcomes
– Employees select outcomes based on
how the choice relates to second-level outcomes
Expectancy Theory Terminology
• First- and second-level outcomes
– The result of behaviors
– Associated with doing the job itself
– First-level outcomes include productivity, absenteeism, turnover,
quality
– Second-level
• Instrumentality
– An individual’s perception that first-level outcomes are
associated with second-level outcomes
Expectancy Theory Terminology
• Valence
– The strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome
– Applies to first- and second-level outcomes
• Expectancy
– Perceived likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a
particular outcome
– Subjective probability
Principles of Expectancy Theory
• V1 = S(V2 x I)
– Valence associated with first-level outcomes is the
sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2)
attached to all second-level outcomes with their
respective instrumentalities (I)
• M = f(V1 x E)
– Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence
for each first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived
expectancy (E) that a given behavior will be followed
by a particular first-level outcome
• P = f(M x A)
– Performance is considered a multiplicative function of
motivation (f) and ability
Expectancy Theory Example
Expectancy
(probability of
performance given
effort)
Performance
outcome
(valences x
instrumentalities)
Instrumentalities (how
much performance
outcome & second-level
outcome are associated
1.0
Day off (6)
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
0.3
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
0.2
Day off (6)
0.7
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
-0.1
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
0.0
Day off (6)
0.2
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
-0.4
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
0.6
Finishing budget
on time (6.9)
2.76
Motivation 2.24
.20
0.4
0.7
Finishing budget
on required day
but after deadline
(3.2)
1.0
Finishing budget
on day after
deadline (.20)
Valences of secondlevel outcomes
(in parentheses)
Expectancy Theory
• Managers should
– Focus on employee expectations for success
– Actively determine which second-level outcomes are important
to employees
– Link desired second-level outcomes to
the organization’s performance goals
Equity Theory
• Employees compare their efforts and rewards with
those of others in similar works situations
Equity Theory
• Important terms
– Person: the individual for whom equity
or inequity is perceived
– Comparison other: any individual(s) or group used as a referent
regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes
– Inputs: the individual characteristics brought by Person to the job
– Outcomes: what Person received from
the job
Equity Theory
A person (P)
with certain
inputs (I) and
receiving
certain
outcomes (O)
Compares
his/her input/
outcome ratio to
reference
person’s (RP)
inputs (I) and
outcomes (O)
and
perceives
IP: Inputs of the person
OP: Outcomes of the person
IRP: Inputs of reference person
ORP: Outcomes of reference person
OP = ORP
IP
IRP (equity)
or
OP
ORP (inequity)
<
IP
IRP
or
OP
ORP (inequity)
>
IP
IRP
Restoring Equity
–
–
–
–
Change the inputs or outcomes of the reference person
Change your inputs or outcomes
Change the reference person
Change the situation