Psychology 242
Introduction
to Research
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1
Exam 1 overview
Overview: exam 1
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Most material will be taken from the lectures
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Study the lecture notes from lectures 1  beginning of 5
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Best study method: give yourself the lectures!
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Understand the key terms I have been using in lecture
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Several lectures have topic or concept lists in a summary; know those.
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Understand the logic of measurement studies versus experiments
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You will apply your paper topic to questions that follow the research flow:
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Do the Week 5 assignment now to prepare for that.
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Weeks 1 & 2; Introduction to science.
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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2
Core components of science
•
What is science?
•
You have seen this
before.
What does this mean?
Values:
Critical thought + Empiricism
 Understand the Natural World
 Theory: How or Why?
 Evidence: How do you know?
Content
 Empirical findings: Facts
 Ways of classifying nature
 Well supported theories
Methods
 Objective approaches
 Basic experimental design
 Specific research procedures
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Psychology 242
Introduction
to Research
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Intuition, Magical Thought & science
3
•
You get all this, right?
Our brains may be “hard wired” for intuitive, “Magical Thought”
The brain has evolved to make snap judgments about causation:
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We leap to conclusions before logic can be applied.
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Our emotional needs can distort our perceptions before the logical brain kicks in…
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Our need to feel in control can lead to imagine cause and effect when there really is none
(…The Secret, “magic” foods or diets, rituals).
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We often want to believe;
 We seek control and predictability
 We are vulnerable to explanations that make
us feel good.
 We experience emotions
faster than we can think

Taking a rational, empirical approach
often requires us to suppress our
intuitions or emotions
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Weeks 1 & 2; Introduction to science.
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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Bottom line: Ways of knowing and science
 Authority / authoritarianism
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Stable principles or beliefs
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Limits empirical evidence?
 Intuition / subjective “hunch”
•
•
Have a general sense of
these.
Note role of theory.
 Source of novel hypotheses
 Emotion-based “wishful thinking”  irrationality.
 Empiricism
 Grounds knowledge in “real” world
 Simple empiricism subject to cognitive / emotional biases.
 Rationalism / theory
 Central purpose of science:

explanation of “why” or “how” nature works.
 Social pressure can limit hypothesis testing
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Weeks 1 & 2; Introduction to science.
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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5
How do we “Know” something?
Science: Integration of..
Rationalism

Hypothetical
construct

Theory

Hypothesis
Empiricism
 Objective observation
 Control
 Operational definitions
 Replication
 Internal – external validity
Be able to define
and use these terms
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Weeks 1 & 2; Introduction to science.
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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Core course topics
What does science do?
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Describe the world
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Taxonomies
Epidemiology
Qualitative research
Predict events
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Simple predictions
Correlational studies
Experiments
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Test theories
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Identify basic processes
Show how processes are related
Test applications of theories
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E.g., behavioral interventions
Be able to
define and use
these terms
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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7
key terms
Key terms
Be able to
define and use
these terms
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Theory

Hypothetical construct
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Hypothesis
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Variable, “level” of a variable
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Operational definition
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Experimental control
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Measurement v. experimental studies
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Independent v. dependent variables
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Internal v. external validity
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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8
Research Flow
This should be
obvious by now
Phenomenon
- Larger question the research addresses
Why is it important?
Theory
How / why do I think
it works?
- Explanatory processes & how
they are related
Hypothesis
- Concrete variables
-Specific prediction
What concrete evidence or
data will I collect?
What is my specific
prediction?
Methods / Data
- Operational definitions
- Study procedures
Results
- Hypothesis-wise analysis of
outcomes
What do the results mean
for the theory?
What is unanswered?
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan Week 2: Role &
structure of science.
What needs explaining?
What was the outcome?
Hypothesis supported?
Discussion & Conclusion
- Relate results back to theory
- Study limitations & Future studies
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Psychology 242
Introduction
to Research
9
Basic Elements of a Research Project
Phenomenon
Big picture / question
Theory
Hypothetical Constructs
Causal explanation
•
Understand the
stages of the
research flow
•
Understand the
symmetry of the
model
Hypothesis
Operational definition
Specific prediction
Methods
Measurement v.
experimental
Data / Results
• Descriptive data
• Test hypothesis
Discussion
Implications for theory
Conclusions
Future research?
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan Week 2: Role &
structure of science.
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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10
Basics of major forms of research.
Observation or Measurement
Simple Description
Qualitative
Explore the actual
process of a
behavior.
Quantitative
Describe a
behavioral or
social trend.
Experiments
Correlational
Studies
Quasiexperiments
“True”
experiments
Relate measured
variables to each
other to test
hypotheses.
Test hypotheses
in naturally
occurring events
or field studies.
Test specific
hypotheses via
controlled “lab”
conditions.
External validity
Internal validity
• Understand what internal / external validity mean
• Understand the trade-off between the two.
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Weeks 1 & 2; Introduction to science.
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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Values, theory and data in the scientific process.
Got it?...
Phenomenon
Social values help define a scientific
“problem” or question.
Norms, values (& data) determine what
is credible / fundable.
Theory
Theory is influenced by norms +
empirical background of field.
Hypothesis
Science hinges on clear, objectively
stated hypotheses.
Methods
& data
Clear hypotheses lessen bias in
interpreting results.
Results
Methods & analyses are most objective,
but fields vary in methodological
rigor.
Discussion &
Conclusions
The “meaning” of a finding is influenced
by cultural & social values or
concerns.
…for science and, particularly, for
society.
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Week 3; Experimental designs
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Measurement v. experimental methods
Psychology 242
Introduction
to Research
Understand this distinction; I WILL ask about it.
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Experiments:
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Manipulate the Independent Variable.
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Randomly Assign participants to groups
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Control all aspects of the procedures
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Keep participants and researcher Blind
Measurement studies
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Assess / measure the Predictor.
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Typically do not:
Randomly assign
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Exert complete control
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Blind
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Week 3; Experimental designs
Understand the effects
these differences have
on internal & external
validity.
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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13
Experimental v. Measurement designs
Experimental designs
 Manipulating the Independent Variable:
Another
slide on
this…
 Enhances internal validity
 May lessen external validity
 Participants randomly assigned to experimental v. control groups
Measurement (or correlational) designs
 Measurement “in the field”
 May enhance external validity
 Typically lessens internal validity
 Sampling very important
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Week 3; Experimental designs
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Psychology 242
Introduction
to Research

Key terms & concepts, 2
Creating an Independent variable
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Direct: treatment dose or manipulation
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Indirect: use context or instructions to induce IV (e.g., instructions
and stress) (requires manipulation check)
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Using a measured variable (self-reports or “status” variable) to create
groups
I may ask for
examples of
these.
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Week 3; Experimental designs
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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15
Ethics
The Common Rule
 Minimize risks
 Risks must be reasonable
Be able to
generally define or
describe these.
 Recruit participants equitably
 Informed consent
 Document consent
 Monitor for safety
 Protect vulnerable participants &
maintain confidentiality
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Research Ethics
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Psychology 242
Introduction
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Ethics; The Belmont Report
1. Respect For Persons
 Right to exercise autonomy & make informed choices.
2. Beneficence
 Minimize of risk + maximize social / individual benefit
3. Justice
 Include participants of all races & genders
 Members of target population on design & research team
 Research contribute to study population studied
 Do not unduly involve groups unlikely to benefit from the research
 Communicate research results & develop programs/ interventions
Be able to describe these.
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Research Ethics
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Psychology 242
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Basics of Design: Internal Validity
Internal Validity:
Can we validly determine what is
causing the results of the
experiment?
External Validity:
Can we validly generalize from this
experiment to the larger world?
General Research
Hypothesis: the
experimental outcome (value of
the Dependent Variable) is caused
only by the experiment itself
(Independent Variable).
Confound: a “3rd variable”
(unmeasured variable other than the
Independent Variable) might have
actually led to the results.
Be able to give an example or
define these terms.
Psychology 242, Dr. McKirnan
Experimental Design & sampling
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