IMS5006 - Information Systems
Development Practices
People themes in information
systems development
5.1
The role of people in ISD
 importance of user involvement/participation in systems
development:
user/developer communication and cultures
 the developer as “technical expert”
 lack of user satisfaction and commitment
 technical success is not enough
 user vs IT department relations
5.2
The role of people in ISD
Some potential solutions:



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Participative approaches
Management commitment/leadership
Improved human-computer interfaces
Training and education: developers and business
users
 End user computing
 JRP and JAD sessions
5.3
People themes in IS development
 User participation
 End user computing
 Stakeholder analysis
 JAD (Joint Application Development)
 Groupwork and groupware
5.4
People themes in ISD
• in what ways have information systems
development methodologies been influenced by
these “people themes”?
• how have techniques and tools relating to these
“people themes” been incorporated into
information systems development
methodologies?
5.5
User participation
 early systems development approaches:
-
focus on technical aspects of computer systems
-
little actual decision-making by users
 problems:
-
users resented developers as “outsiders” with little
understanding of the business environment
-
systems “imposed” on users and not “user friendly”
-
systems did not adequately support business needs
5.6
User participation: definitions
participation as user involvement in systems design:
“ a process in which two or more parties influence each
other in making plans, policies or decisions. It is restricted
to decisions that have future effects on all those making
the decisions or those represented by them”
(Mumford 1983, p. 22)
participation may have different meanings for different
groups:
e.g. morally right, employee commitment, management
tool, empowerment of employees etc.
5.7
User participation: definitions
 Barki and Hartwick (1989) distinguish between:
user participation
a set of activities and behaviours performed by users
user involvement
a subjective, psychological state when a user considers
a system to be both important and personally relevant
How do these affect system usage and user
satisfaction?
How can we define and measure user satisfaction?
5.8
Mumford’s three levels of user
participation
three levels are identified by Mumford (1983):
 consultative
all users are consulted about/contribute ideas to the
design process but the design task is carried out by
systems analysts
 representative
design groups formed from elected or selected
representatives take design decisions
 consensus
design group members constantly discuss ideas and
solutions with all users
5.9
User participation
expected benefits of user participation:
 improved system quality:
more complete, accurate requirements
provides expertise about the organisation
avoids development of unacceptable or unimportant
features
improves user understanding of the system
 increased user acceptance:
realistic expectations
“arena” for conflict resolution
users more committed to the system
decreased user resistance
5.10
User participation
Avison and Fitzgerald (2003)
user participation has been growing:
 managers should provide leadership by example
 better user / developer communication
 systems analysts need to understand business areas
 Improved human - computer interface
 Enid Mumford’s three levels of participation (ETHICS)
 potential problems: fragmentation of user groups,
developer resentment, power relationships
5.11
User participation and ISD
methodologies
 Structured analysis
user walkthroughs, users select implementation option
 SSADM
user walkthroughs, user representation in development
teams, users select technical option,
 Information Engineering
users active in design activities, management involved
in ISP and BAA, user reviews
 SSM
users part of team: problem owners and solvers
 ETHICS
users do the design
5.12
End-user computing
 Enabled by PCs and application packages for non-IT
people
e.g. spreadsheets, database, VisualBASIC etc
 Users in business organisations were able to build their
own business applications, either stand-alone or
integrated with organisational systems
 Definitions of end-user computing:
e.g.
“the practice of end-users developing, maintaining, and
using their own information systems”
(Mirani and King 1994)
5.13
End-user computing
 Early 1980s: user-driven computing
-end-user computing enabled by introduction of PCs
-decentralisation of computing resources
 Resulted in user satisfaction:
-met needs unlikely to be satisfied by IT departments
-some pressure off IT departments
-end-users “close” to the business problems
-systems resourced/costed within user department
budgets
5.14
End-user computing
 problems of control:
validity and integrity of data
lack of documentation
security issues
maintainability
application “islands”
duplication and inconsistencies
assistance required by users
5.15
End-user computing
 A “solution”: Information Centres
-Staffed and run by IT department
-Provide consultation, software and tools, liaison with
vendors etc. to assist users in developing their own
departmental information systems
 Significant in 1980s and early 1990s
 Increasingly sophisticated users of today have no need
for Information Centres
 Users today need support from IT corporate specialists
when developing customer-oriented systems in
particular
i.e. change from the tactical, problem-solving role of the
past to a strategic, consultant role
5.16
Stakeholder analysis
Stakeholder:
 Those groups either “vital to the survival and success of
of the corporation or whose interests are vitally affected
by the corporation”
Smith and Hasnas (1999) in Avison and Fitzgerald (2003), p. 278
 Seven primary stakeholders:
 Shareholders and investors
 Employees
 Customers
 Suppliers
 Trade associations
 Environmental groups
 Public groups (government, communities etc.)
5.17
Stakeholder analysis

Unstructured identification of potential stakeholders
e.g. brainstorming

Consult/involve those identified

Problems:

primary stakeholders easy to identify

accountability to stakeholders

Establishing legal, moral rights e.g. privacy, risk

Stakeholder interests difficult to define e.g.
subjective, unclear (interorganisational/global)

Balancing of stakeholder interests
 A managerial imperative: leads to “successful” systems
5.18
JAD (Joint Application
Development)
 can be for analysis and/or design
 originated in late 1970s at IBM
 bring together key users, managers, systems analysts in a
group meeting with a specific structure of roles and agenda
 JRP (Joint Requirements Planning): key system
requirements
 JAD: specify the system’s design (external design only)
 group meeting:
avoid distractions
identify areas of agreement and conflict
resolve conflicts during the period of sessions
5.19
JAD sessions: roles
 JAD participants:
 facilitator: organise and run the sessions
 scribe(s): takes notes on a PC, CASE tool etc
 users:
understand the system requirements
 managers:
organisational overview
 systems analysts:
technical knowledge,
learn about the system
 sponsor:
senior executive who commits and funds the
process
5.20
Joint Application Development
(JAD)
JAD sessions:
 from one to five days
 structured meeting room with white boards etc.,
CASE tools
 located away from users’ workplace
 outcome is documents detailing the system:
workings of/requirements for the system/design
5.21
Joint Application
Development (JAD)
Preparing for JAD sessions:
 JAD leader prepares and distributes agenda and
documentation about scope and objectives
 Agenda specifies issues to be discussed and time
allocated to each
 Ground rules for running the sessions are made clear
 Ensure users who attend are knowledgeable about their
business area
5.22
Joint Application Development
(JAD) sessions
Conducting JAD sessions:








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Avoid deviating from the agenda
Keep to schedule (time for topics)
Ensure scribe takes adequate notes
Avoid using technical jargon
Use conflict resolution strategies
Allow ample breaks
Encourage group consensus
Encourage participation vs individuals dominating
Ensure ground rules are adhered to
5.23
JAD sessions
benefits:
 reduced time to move requirements/design forward
(group vs one-on-one, details worked on between
meetings)
 key people work together to make important decisions
 commitment is focused and intensive, not dissipated
over time
 conflicts and differences can be understood and
resolved
improved quality and productivity
5.24
Groupwork and Support Systems
a group (or workgroup)
2 or more people (up to 25?) whose mission is to
perform some task and who act as one unit
group support systems
systems which support organisational group activities,
improving their effectiveness and efficiency
includes:
 CSCW (computer-supported co-operative work) groups of people working together, especially
professionals working on creative tasks
 GDSS (group decision support systems) - groups of
people involved in decision-making tasks
5.25
Group Support Systems
related and overlapping concepts/technologies:
groupware
software products designed to support groups of people
engaged in a common goal or task
office automation
technology designed to improve the functioning of the office,
e.g. word processing, LANs
computer conferencing
electronic communication allowing two or more people at
different locations to have a conference or collaborate on a
task, an aid to discussion
electronic meeting system
IT-based environment supporting a group meeting that may be
distributed geographically and temporally
5.26
Time/Place Communication Support
Same Time
e.g. meeting room
Same
Place mutimedia presentation systems,
keypad-based voting systems,
facilitated meetings using
networked PCs
e.g. meeting
Different
Place
screen sharing,
video conferencing
from DeSanctis & Gallupe (1985)
Different Time
e.g. team room, shared offices
(e.g. shift work)
e-mail,
messaging
e.g. group task
e-mail,
data and file sharing,
group authoring tools,
workflow software
5.27
Group Support Systems
working in groups:
e.g. committees, teams, review panels, task force
advantages
 a group has more information than any one member
 working in a group stimulates the process, ideas, problem solving
 risk balance: moderate high riskers and encourage conservatives
 better at finding errors
 synergy, accountability, commitment
5.28
Group Support Systems
working in groups:
e.g. committees, teams, review panels, task force
disadvantages
 groupthink: pressures to conform
 tendency of group members to rely on others to do the work
 time-consuming, expensive
 inappropriate influences: domination, fear of speaking up
 difficulties of co-ordination, and need for planning
 non-productive time, e.g. socialising, waiting for people
 compromise, poor quality decisions, lack of participation
5.29
Groupware
 software tools that support and help co-ordinate the
activities of a group require their users to be
connected to a network of computers and databases:
intranets
provide access to internal organisational information
and facilities e.g. e-mail, corporate databases,
directories, software
the Internet
provides access to external information and
communication and collaboration facilities
 groupware products can be used as separate
packages or as integrated systems
5.30
Groupware
groupware is an ambiguous term, 100s of products on the market
 integrated systems:
e.g. Lotus Notes, Netscape Communicator
 separate applications:
browsers, intelligent agents, search engines
electronic mail
bulletin boards and newsgroups (email-based discussion groups)
messaging systems
workflow software: accessing, tracking, and directing documents
and information
screensharing: same material shown on participants' screens
(e.g. manuscripts, spreadsheets)
integrated conferencing services: teleconferencing, video
5.31
conferencing
Groupware
Lotus Notes: an integrated system groupware product
 A group communications environment for users to access and
create information that is collected, stored, organised and
disseminated on one or more networks
 Direct web access and access to we browsers
 Provides workgroup email, distributed databases, bulletin
boards, text editing, document management, application
development tools, and workflow capabilities all integrated
using a graphic menu-based interface
(Windows interface in client/server architecture)
5.32
References
 Prescribed text:
Avison, D.E. & Fitzgerald, G. (2003). Information Systems
Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools. (3rd
ed), McGraw-Hill, London.
Chapters 1, 7, 16
 Turban, E. and Aronson, J. (1998) Decision Support
Systems and Intelligent Systems, (5th ed) Prentice-Hall
DeSanctis, G. and Gallupe, R. (1985) “Group Decision
Support Systems: A New Frontier”, in Database
Jessup, L. and Valacich, A. eds (1993) Group Support
Systems: New Perspectives, MacMillan
5.33