Theory questions about-
1.
Principals of Design- Symmetry, Balance, Asymmetry, Rhythm, Harmony, Proportion, Scale;
2.
Elements of Design- Form, Transformation of Form, Shape, Space, Organization of Space ,Color,
Texture, Material
3.
History of Architecture and Planning- Roman ,Greek, Medieval, Renaissance, Industrial, Modern,
Post modern;
4.
History of Art; Art and Architecture movements
5.
Principles of Site Planning; Orientation, Climate; Principles of Landscape planning and Design
6.
Materials and Construction techniques;
7.
Famous Architects and their works
8.
Sustainable practices were at the core of vernacular architecture.
The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this. Other energy efficiency and green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS ( Collaborative for High Performance Schools ),LEED
John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture,
Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture
Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture
The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura , by the
Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century CE.
[2]
According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis
[3][4]
which translates roughly as
-


Durability - it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
 Utility - it should be useful and function well for the people using it.
Beauty - it should delight people and raise their spirits.

The 19th century English art critic, John Ruskin , in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849,
[7]
was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture.
Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".
On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere " construction ", the renowned 20th C. architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture
The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan , promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: " Form follows function ".
Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism , empiricism , structuralism , poststructuralism , and phenomenology .
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability . To satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting .
Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.
With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - Brunelleschi , Alberti , Michelangelo , Palladio - and the cult of the individual had begun.
There was still no dividing line between artist , architect and engineer , or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.

The Taj Mahal , in India
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE , developing from a blend of architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and from Byzantium but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East,
North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.
Wells Cathedral , Somerset , England , United Kingdom .
In Europe , in both the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period.
During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.
Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.

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 Acanthus Leaf - Motif in classical architecture found on Corinthian columns
 aisle - subsidiary space alongside the body of a building, separated from it by columns, piers, or posts.
 Apse - vaulted semicircular or polygonal end of a chancel or chapel.
 Arcade - passage or walkway covered over by a succession of arches or vaults supported by columns . Blind arcade or arcading: the same applied to the wall surface.
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
Arch - a curved structure capable of spanning a space while supporting significant weight.
Architrave - formalized lintel, the lowest member of the classical entablature. Also the moulded frame of a door or window (often borrowing the profile of a classical architrave).
 Arris - sharp edge where two surfaces meet at an angle.
 Articulation - articulation is the manner or method of jointing parts such that each part is clear and distinct in relation to the others, even though joined.
 Ashlar - masonry of large blocks cut with even faces and square edges.
 Atrium - (plural: atria) inner court of a Roman or C20 house; in a multi-storey building, a toplit covered court rising through all storeys.
 Attic - small top storey within a roof. The storey above the main entablature of a classical façade .
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 Baluster - small moulded shaft, square or circular, in stone or wood, sometimes metal, supporting the coping of a parapet or the handrail of a staircase; a series of balusters supporting a handrail or coping .
A page of fanciful balusters
 Balustrade - Railing at a stairway, porch or roof
 Barrel vault - an architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve (or pair of curves, in the case of a pointed barrel vault) along a given distance
 Basement - lowest, subordinate storey of building often either entirely or partially below ground level; the lowest part of classical elevation, below the piano nobile .

 Basilica - originally a Roman, large roofed hall erected for transacting business and disposing of legal matters.; later the term came to describe an aisled building with a clerestory. Medieval cathedral plans were a development of the basilica plan type.
 Bas Relief - Shallow carving of figures and landscapes
 Bays - internal compartments of a building; each divided from the other by subtle means such as the boundaries implied by divisions marked in the side walls (columns, pilasters, etc) or the ceiling (beams, etc). Also external divisions of a building by fenestration (windows).
 Bay window - window of one or more storeys projecting from the face of a building. Canted : with a straight front and angled sides. Bow window : curved. Oriel : rests on corbels or brackets and starts above ground level; also the bay window at the dais end of a medieval great hall .
 Bond - brickwork with overlapping bricks. Types of bond include stretcher, English, header,
Flemish, garden wall, herringbone, basket, American, and Chinese.
 Bracket (see also "corbel") - load-bearing member made of wood, stone, or metal that overhangs a wall
 Brise soleil - projecting fins or canopies which shade windows from direct sunlight.
 Buttress - vertical member projecting from a wall to stabilize it or to resist the lateral thrust of an arch, roof, or vault. A flying buttress transmits the thrust to a heavy abutment by means of an arch or half-arch.
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 Cantilever - An unsupported overhang acting as a lever, like a flagpole sticking out of the side of a wall.
 Casement window - window hung vertically, hinged one side, so that it swings inward or outward.
 Cella - the inner chamber of a temple in classical architecture
 Chandrashala - the circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many Indian cave temples and shrines
 Circulation - describes the flow of people throughout a building.
 Coffer - a sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon that serves as a decorative device, usually in a ceiling or vault. Also called caissons, or lacunar.
[1]
 Coping - the capping or covering of a wall.

 Cornice - upper section of an entablature , a projecting shelf along the top of a wall often supported by brackets.
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 Dado - the lower part of a wall, below the dado rail and above the skirting board ; mid section of a pedestal, between base and cornice
 Dentil - Molding made up of rows of small square blocks
 Diastyle - term used to designate an intercolumniation of three or four diameters.
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 Diazoma - a horizontal aisle in an ancient Greek theater that separates the lower and upper tiers of semi-circular seating and intersects with the vertical aisles
 Dikka - Islamic architectural term for the tribune raised upon columns, from which the Koran is recited and the prayers intoned by the Imam of the mosque.
 Doric order - one of the three orders or organizational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture characterized by columns which stood on the flat pavement of a temple without a base, their vertical shafts fluted with parallel concave grooves topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the intersection with the horizontal beam that they carried.
 Dormer - a structural element of a building that protrudes from the plane of a sloping roof surface. Dormers are used, either in original construction or as later additions, to create usable space in the roof of a building by adding headroom and usually also by enabling addition of windows.
 Double-Hung Windows - Windows with two sashes sliding up and down.
 Dripstone - a projecting moulding weathered on the upper surface and throated underneath so as to deflect rain water. When carried round an arch it is called a hood. It is sometimes employed inside a building for a decorative purpose only. " Dripstone ". Encyclopædia Britannica
(11th ed.). 1911.
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 Eaves - Lowest projecting part of a sloped roof
 Egg & Dart - Molding in which an egg shape alternates with a dart shape
 Elephantine Columns - Tapered; used as porch supports on Bungalows.
 Entablature - Horizontal detailing above a classical column and below a pediment, consisting of cornice, frieze and architrave.

 Eyebrow Window - Roof dormer having low sides; formed by raising small section of roof
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 Fanlight - window, semicircular or semi-elliptical in shape, with glazing bars or tracery sets radiating out like an open fan.
 Finial - Decorative vertical roof ornament
 Fluting - Narrow vertical grooves on shafts of columns and pilasters
 Flying buttress - a specific type of buttress usually found on a religious building such as a cathedral.
 Frieze - Band (often decorative) below cornice
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 gable - a triangular portion of a wall between the edges of a sloping roof
 Garretting, - the process in which the gallets or small splinters of stone are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints. They are stuck in while the mortar is wet.
 Gazebo - a freestanding pavilion structure often found in parks, gardens and public areas
 Geison - (often interchangeable with cornice ) the part of the entablature that projects outward from the top of the frieze in the Doric order and from the top of the frieze course of the Ionic and Corinthan orders; it forms the outer edge of the roof on the sides of a structure with a sloped roof.
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 Hip roof - a type of roof where all sides slope downwards to the walls
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 Jagati - a raised surface, platform or terrace upon which an Indian temple is placed
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 Keystone (architecture) - the architectural piece at the crown of a vault or arch and marks its apex, locking the other pieces into position.

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 Lacunar - Latin name in architecture for paneled or coffered ceiling , soffit , or vault adorned with a pattern of recessed paneled .
 Lancet window - Window with a pointed arch
 Latticework - an ornamental, lattice framework consisting of a criss-crossed pattern
 Lintel (architecture) - a horizontal block that spans the space between two supports
 Loggia - a gallery formed by a colonnade open on one or more sides. The space is often located on an upper floor of a building overlooking an open court or garden.
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 Mandapa - in Indian architecture is a pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals
 molding (molding) - decorative finishing strip.
 Mullion - vertical bar of wood, metal or stone which divides a window into two or more parts
( cf.
transom ).
 Parapet - a low wall built upon a platform, terrace, or roof usually located at or slightly back from the outer edge. Historically, parapets were used as a form of protection for soldiers such as atop castles. Parapets are often used as a decorative element and/or as a solid railing for rooftops and terraces. Common uses of parapets include non-structural height extension for a building such as for a decorative cornice, concealment of rooftop surfaces or equipment, or horizontal alignment or emphasis of building masses.
Parclose of de Saint Materne Basilica in Walcourt .
 Pavilion (structure) - a free standing structure near the main building or an ending structure on building wings

 Pediment - (Gr. ἀ
ετός, Lat. fastigium, Fr. ponton), in classic architecture the triangular-shaped portion of the wali above the cornice which formed the termination of the roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which surround it enclose the tympanum , which is sometimes decorated with sculpture.
 Podium - a raised platform with seats for privileged attendees.
Portico
 Portico - a series of columns or arches in front of a building, generally as a covered walkway.
 Prostyle - free standing columns that are widely spaced apart in a row. The term is often used as an adjective when referring to a portico which projects from the main structure.
 Pteroma - in Classical architecture, the enclosed space of a portico , peristyle , or stoa , generally behind a screen of columns.
 Purlin - a horizontal structural member in a roof that supports the loads generated from the roof deck
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 Recessed entryway - A door that recesses into the side of a building to form two walls on either side. Common of Victorian and colonial style designs [4]
 Revolving Door - A revolving door typically consists of three or four doors that hang on a center shaft and rotate around a vertical axis within a round enclosure.
 Rib vault - The intersection of two or three barrel vaults
 Roof comb - the structure that tops a pyramid in monumental Mesoamerican architecture
 Rubble - Undressed broken stone used in construction
 Rusticated - Stonework with beveled or angled edges
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

 Soffit - Underside of an eave, lintel or other horizontal element
 Springer (architecture) - an architectural term for the lowest voussoir on each side of an arch.
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 Tympanum - the triangular space enclosed between the horizontal cornice of the entablature and the sloping cornice of the pediment.
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 Veranda - Porch that runs along front or side of a building; supported by pillars or columns
Modern architecture
The Bauhaus Dessau architecture department from 1925 by Walter Gropius
The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture . Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund , formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here.
Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar , Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history , viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis--the apex--of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I , pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes.
They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.

Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright .
The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe , Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution , including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the
International Style , an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's
World Trade Center .
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. Yet as the founders of that movement lost influence in the late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. Robert Venturi 's contention that a
"decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach
Postmodern design at Gare do Oriente , Lisbon , Portugal , by Santiago Calatrava .

Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to Modernism and
Postmodernism by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment.
The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
As the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.
During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect
[a] from the 'project' architect.
[b]
Moving the issues of environmental sustainability into the mainstream is a significant development in the architecture profession. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the
1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and
New Zealand. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. It is now expected that architects will integrate sustainable principles into their projects.
[12]
An example of an architecturally innovative green building is the Dynamic Tower which will be powered by wind turbines and solar panels .
A natural building involves a range of building systems and materials that place major emphasis on sustainability . Ways of achieving sustainability through natural building focus on durability and the use of minimally-processed, plentiful or renewable resources , as well as those which, while recycled or salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain indoor air quality. Natural building tends to rely on human labor, more than technology. As Michael G.
Smith observes, it depends on "local ecology, geology and climate; on the character of the particular building site, and on the needs and personalities of the builders and users."
[1]
The basis of natural building is the need to lessen the environmental impact of buildings and other supporting systems, without sacrificing comfort, health or aesthetics . To be more sustainable, natural building uses primarily abundantly-available, renewable, reused or recycled materials. The use of rapidly renewable materials is increasingly a focus. In addition to relying on natural building materials, the emphasis on the architectural design is heightened. The orientation of a building, the utilization of local climate and site conditions, the emphasis on natural ventilation through design, fundamentally lessen operational costs and positively impact the environmental. Building compactly and minimizing the ecological footprint is common, as are on-site handling of energy acquisition, on-site water capture, alternate sewage treatment and water reuse.

Green Building , also known as and green construction or sustainable building , is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resourceefficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.
[1]
Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in creating greener structures, the common objective is that green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by:


Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
 Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation
[1]
A similar concept is natural building , which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to focus on the use of natural materials that are available locally.
[2] Other related topics include sustainable design and green architecture .
Sustainable design (also called environmental design , environmentally sustainable design, environmentally-conscious design, etc.) is the philosophy of designing physical objects, the built environment, and services to comply with the principles of economic , social , and ecological sustainability .
The intention of sustainable design is to "eliminate negative environmental impact completely through skillful, sensitive design".
[1]
Manifestations of sustainable design require no nonrenewable resources , impact the environment minimally, and relate people with the natural environment.
Applications of this philosophy range from the microcosm — small objects for everyday use, through to the macrocosm — buildings, cities, and the earth's physical surface. It is a philosophy that can be applied in the fields of architecture , landscape architecture , urban design , urban planning , engineering , graphic design , industrial design , interior design , and fashion design .
Sustainable design is mostly a general reaction to global environmental crises, the rapid growth of economic activity and human population, depletion of natural resources, damage to ecosystems , and loss of biodiversity .
[2]
The limits of sustainable design are reducing. Whole earth impacts are beginning to be considered because growth in goods and services is consistently outpacing gains in efficiency.
As a result, the net effect of sustainable design to date has been to simply improve the efficiency of rapidly increasing impacts. The present approach, which focuses on the efficiency of delivering individual goods and services, does not solve this problem. The basic dilemmas include: the increasing complexity of efficiency improvements; the difficulty of implementing new technologies in societies built around old ones; that physical impacts of delivering goods and services are not localized, but are distributed throughout the economies; and that the scale of resource use is growing and not stabilizing.

The motivation for sustainable design was articulated in E. F. Schumacher 's 1973 book Small Is
Beautiful . In architecture, sustainable design is not the attachment or supplement of architectural design, but an integrated design process. This requires close cooperation of the design team, the architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages, from site selection, scheme formation, material selection and procurement, to project implementation.
Interactive Architecture signifies a field of architecture in which objects and space have the ability to meet changing needs with respect to evolving individual, social, and environmental demands. It is also termed Responsive architecture .
Blobitecture from blob architecture , blobism or blobismus are terms for a movement in architecture in which buildings have an organic, amoeba -shaped, bulging form.
[1]
Though the term 'blob architecture' was in vogue already in the mid-1990s, the word blobitecture first appeared in print in 2002, in William Safire 's "
The term 'blob architecture' was coined by architect Greg Lynn in 1995 in his experiments in digital design with metaball graphical software. Soon a range of architects and furniture designers began to experiment with this "blobby" software to create new and unusual forms.
Despite its seeming organicism, blob architecture is unthinkable without this and other similar computer-aided design programs. Architects derive the forms by manipulating the algorithms of the computer modeling platform. Some other computer aided design functions involved in developing this are the nonuniform rational B-spline or NURB, freeform surfaces , and the digitizing of sculpted forms by means akin to computed tomography
Future Systems ' blobitecture design for the 2003 Selfridges department store, was intended to evoke the female sillouette and a famous "chainmail" dress designed by Paco Rabanne in the
1960s. Its landmark qualities were expected to rejuvenate the Birmingham city centre

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The water pavilion from 1997 by NOX/ Lars Spuybroek in the Netherlands.
The Sage Gateshead building by Norman Foster
Despite the narrow interpretation of Blob architecture (i.e. that coming from the computer), the word, especially in popular parlance, has come to be associated quite widely with a range of curved or odd-looking buildings including Frank Gehry 's Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (1997) and the Experience Music Project (2000), though these, in the narrower sense are not blob buildings, even though they were designed by advanced computer-aided design tools, CATIA in particular.
[5]
The reason for this is that they were designed from physical models rather than from computer manipulations. The first full blob building, however, was built in the Netherlands by
Lars Spuybroek (NOX) and Kas Oosterhuis . Called the Water Pavilion (1993–1997), it has a fully computer-based shape manufactured with computer-aided tools and an electronic interactive interior where sound and light can be transformed by the visitor.
A building that also can be considered an example of a blob is Peter Cook and Colin Fournier 's
Kunsthaus (2003) in Graz , Austria. Other instances are Roy Mason 's Xanadu House (1979), and a rare excursion into the field by Herzog & de Meuron in their Allianz Arena (2005). By 2005,
Norman Foster had involved himself in blobitecture to some extent as well with his brain-shaped design for the Philological Library at the Free University of Berlin and the Sage Gateshead opened in 2004
The Memphis-Milano Movement was an Italian design and architecture group started by Ettore
Sottsass that designed Post Modern furniture, fabrics, ceramics, glass and metal objects from 1981-1987

Libeskind 's Imperial War Museum North in Manchester comprises three apparently intersecting curved volumes.
Deconstructivism in architecture, also called deconstruction , is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, nonrectilinear shapes which serve to distort and dislocate some of the elements of architecture , such as structure and envelope . The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterized by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.
Important events in the history of the deconstructivist movement include the 1982 Parc de la
Villette architectural design competition (especially the entry from Jacques Derrida and Peter
Eisenman [1] and Bernard Tschumi 's winning entry), the Museum of Modern Art ’s 1988
Deconstructivist Architecture exhibition in New York, organized by Philip Johnson and Mark
Wigley , and the 1989 opening of the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus , designed by Peter
Eisenman. The New York exhibition featured works by Frank Gehry , Daniel Libeskind , Rem
Koolhaas , Peter Eisenman , Zaha Hadid , Coop Himmelb(l)au , and Bernard Tschumi . Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture.
Originally, some of the architects known as Deconstructivists were influenced by the ideas of the
French philosopher Jacques Derrida . Eisenman developed a personal relationship with Derrida, but even so his approach to architectural design was developed long before he became a
Deconstructivist. For him Deconstructivism should be considered an extension of his interest in radical formalism. Some practitioners of deconstructivism were also influenced by the formal experimentation and geometric imbalances of Russian constructivism . There are additional references in deconstructivism to 20th-century movements: the modernism / postmodernism interplay, expressionism , cubism , minimalism and contemporary art . The attempt in deconstructivism throughout is to move architecture away from what its practitioners see as the constricting 'rules' of modernism such as " form follows function ," " purity of form ," and " truth to materials ."

Postmodern architecture was an international style whose first examples are generally cited as being from the 1950s, but which did not become a movement until the late 1970s
[1]
and continues to influence present-day architecture . Postmodernity in architecture is generally thought to be heralded by the return of "wit, ornament and reference" to architecture in response to the formalism of the International Style of modernism. As with many cultural movements, some of postmodernism's most pronounced and visible ideas can be seen in architecture. The functional and formalized shapes and spaces of the modernist movement are replaced by unapologetically diverse aesthetics : styles collide, form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound.
One popular building style of postmodernist style architecture is the use of pent roofing in buildings, where roofs are slanted at an even angle from one wall to the other. Peaked roofing however, as seen on most traditional single-family homes, is an example of Modernist
Architecture.
Transitional examples of postmodern architecture are Michael Graves ' Portland Building in
Portland, Oregon and Philip Johnson 's Sony Building (originally AT&T Building) in New York
City , which borrows elements and references from the past and reintroduces color and symbolism to architecture. A prime example of inspiration for postmodern architecture lies along the Las Vegas Strip , which was studied by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown in their 1972 book Learning from Las Vegas celebrating the strip's ordinary and common architecture.
Postmodern architecture has also been described as " neo-eclectic ", where reference and ornament have returned to the facade, replacing the aggressively unornamented modern styles.
This eclecticism is often combined with the use of non-orthogonal angles and unusual surfaces, most famously in the State Gallery of Stuttgart ( New wing of the Staatsgalerie Stuttgart ) and the
Piazza d'Italia by Charles Moore . The Scottish Parliament buildings in Edinburgh have also been cited as being of postmodern vogue
Modernist architects regard post-modern buildings as vulgar (many times associated with the style of shopping malls and the nouveau riche values) and cluttered with " gew-gaws ".
Postmodern architects often regard modern spaces as soulless and bland. The divergence in opinions comes down to a difference in goals: modernism is rooted in minimal and true use of material as well as absence of ornament , while postmodernism is a rejection of strict rules set by the early modernists and seeks exuberance in the use of building techniques, angles, and stylistic references.
Some of the best-known and influential architects in the postmodern style are:


Aldo Rossi
 Ricardo Bofill
 John Burgee
 Santiago Calatrava
Terry Farrell


Charles Moore
 William Pereira
 Boris Podrecca
 Cesar Pelli
Paolo Portoghesi

 Michael Graves
 Helmut Jahn
 Jon Jerde
 Philip Johnson
 Ricardo Legorreta
 Frank Gehry
 Antoine Predock
 Tomás Taveira
 Robert A.M. Stern
 James Stirling
 Robert Venturi
 Peter Eisenman
 Mario Botta
Harold Washington
Library in Chicago by
Neue
Staatsgalerie in Stuttgart ,
Wells Fargo
Germany by James Stirling
Center in Minneapolis by and Michael Wilford , 1984.
César Pelli . Completed
1989.
Messeturm in Frankfurt ,
Germany by Helmut
Jahn . Completed 1991.
Hammond, Beeby and
Babka. Completed
1991.
Comerica Tower in
Detroit by John Burgee and Philip
Johnson ,Completed
1993.
City of the Arts and the
RMIT Building 8.
Swanston Street in
Melbourne by Edmund
Spain by Santiago
Calatrava . Opened to
& Corrigan , 1993.
Sciences in Valencia , public in 1998.
Petronas Towers in
Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia by
,
César
Pelli . Completed 1998.
Reichstag (German parliament) renovation and cupola in Berlin by
Norman Foster .
Completed 1999.
Kollhoff-Tower at
Potsdamer Platz in
Berlin by Hans
Kollhoff . Completed
1999.
The Milwaukee Art
Museum by Santiago
Calatrava . Completed
2001.
The McCormick
Tribune Campus Center at Chicago 's IIT
Campus by Rem
Koolhaas , 2003.

San Antonio Public Library , Texas .
New trends became evident in the last quarter of the 20 th
century as some architects started to turn away from modern Functionalism which they viewed as boring, and which some of the public considered unwelcoming and even unpleasant. These architects turned towards the past, quoting past aspects of various buildings and melding them together (even sometimes in an inharmonious manner) to create a new means of designing buildings. A vivid example of this new approach was that Postmodernism saw the comeback of pillars and other elements of premodern designs, sometimes adapting classical Greek and Roman examples (but not simply recreating them, as was done in neoclassical architecture ). In Modernism , the pillar (as a design feature) was either replaced by other technological means such as cantilevers , or masked completely by curtain wall façades
. The revival of the pillar was an aesthetic , rather than a technological, necessity. Modernist high-rise buildings had become in most instances monolithic , rejecting the concept of a stack of varied design elements for a single vocabulary from ground level to the top, in the most extreme cases even using a constant "footprint" (with no tapering or
"wedding cake" design), with the building sometimes even suggesting the possibility of a single metallic extrusion directly from the ground, mostly by eliminating visual horizontal elements — this was seen most strictly in Minoru Yamasaki 's World Trade Center buildings.
The HSBC Hong Kong headquarters is one example of high-tech architecture
Ancient ruyi symbol adorning Taipei 101 ( Taiwan )
Another return was that of the “wit, ornament and reference” seen in older buildings in terra cotta decorative façades and bronze or stainless steel embellishments of the Beaux-Arts and Art

Deco periods. In post-modern structures this was often achieved by placing contradictory quotes of previous building styles alongside each other, and even incorporating furniture stylistic references at a huge scale.
High-tech architecture , also known as Late Modernism or Structural Expressionism , is an architectural style that emerged in the 1970s, incorporating elements of high-tech industry and technology into building design. High-tech architecture appeared as a revamped modernism , an extension of those previous ideas aided by even more advances in technological achievements.
This category serves as a bridge between modernism and post-modernism , however there remain gray areas as to where one category ends and the other begins. In the 1980s, high-tech architecture became more difficult to distinguish from post-modern architecture. Many of its themes and ideas were absorbed into the language of the post-modern architectural schools.
Like Brutalism , Structural Expressionist buildings reveal their structure on the outside as well as the inside, but with visual emphasis placed on the internal steel and/or concrete skeletal structure as opposed to exterior concrete walls. In buildings such as the Pompidou Centre, this idea of revealed structure is taken to the extreme, with apparently structural components serving little or no structural role. In this case, the use of "structural" steel is a stylistic or aesthetic matter.
The style's premier practitioners include the British architect Norman Foster , whose work has since earned him knighthood, and Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava , known for his organic, skeleton-like designs.
Buildings designed in this style usually consist of a clear glass facade, with the building's network of support beams exposed behind it. Perhaps the most famous and easily recognized building built in this style is I.M. Pei 's Bank of China Tower in Hong Kong . The World Trade
Center in New York City , although generally considered to be an International Style building, was technically a Structural Expressionist design due to its load-bearing steel exoskeleton.
The English architects Alison and Peter Smithson coined the term in 1954, from the French béton brut
, or "raw concrete," a phrase used by Le Corbusier to describe the poured boardmarked concrete with which he constructed many of his post-WWII buildings. The term gained wide currency when the British architectural critic Reyner Banham used it in the title of his 1966 book, The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?
, to characterize a by then established cluster of architectural approaches, particularly in Europe.
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Boston City Hall , part of Government Center, Boston, Massachusetts
(Gerhardt Kallmann and N. Michael McKinnell, 1969)
Brutalist buildings usually are formed with striking repetitive angular geometries, and, where concrete is used, often revealing the texture of the wooden forms used for the in-situ casting. Although concrete is the material most widely associated with Brutalist architecture, not all Brutalist buildings are formed from concrete. Instead, a building may achieve its Brutalist quality through a rough, blocky appearance, and the expression of its structural materials, forms, and (in some cases) services on its exterior. For example, many of Alison and Peter Smithson's private houses are built from brick. Brutalist building materials also include brick, glass, steel, rough-hewn stone, and gabion (also known as trapion).
Conversely, not all buildings exhibiting an exposed concrete exterior can be considered Brutalist, and may belong to one of a range of architectural styles including Constructivism , International Style ,
Expressionism , Postmodernism , and D
Hans Hofmann , "The Gate", 1959–1960, collection: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum .
Hofmann was renowned not only as an artist but also as a teacher of art, and a modernist theorist both in his native Germany and later in the U.S. During the 1930s in New York and California he

introduced modernism and modernist theories to a new generation of American artists. Through his teaching and his lectures at his art schools in Greenwich Village and Provincetown,
Massachusetts , he widened the scope of modernism in America. econstructivism
Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array of associated cultural movements , originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The term encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the
"traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social and political conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world.
Art Deco was a popular international art design movement from 1925 until the 1940s, affecting the decorative arts such as architecture , interior design and industrial design , as well as the visual arts such as fashion , painting , the graphic arts and film . At the time, this style was seen as elegant, glamorous , functional and modern.
The movement was a mixture of many different styles and movements of the early 20th century, including Neoclassical , Constructivism , Cubism , Modernism , Art Nouveau , and Futurism .
[1]
Its popularity peaked in Europe during the Roaring Twenties
[2]
and continued strongly in the United
States through the 1930s.
[3]
Although many design movements have political or philosophical roots or intentions, Art Deco was purely decorative.
[4]
Surviving examples may still be seen in many different locations worldwide, in countries as diverse as
China ( Shanghai ), United Kingdom , Spain , Cuba , Indonesia , the Philippines , Argentina , Romania ,
Australia , New Zealand , India , Brazil , Colombia , and the United States (primarily in Miami , Los Angeles and New York City ). Many classic examples still exist in the form of architecture in many major cities.
The Empire State Building and Chrysler Building , both in New York City, are two of the largest and bestknown examples of the style.

City Hall of Buffalo, New York , an Art Deco building
The Art Deco spire of the Chrysler Building in New York, built 1928–1930
Staatliches Bauhaus ( help · info ) , was a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. It operated from 1919 to
1933. The term Bauhaus ( help · info ) is German for ("House of Building" or "Building School").

The Bauhaus school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. In spite of its name, and the fact that its founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during the first years of its existence. Nonetheless it was founded with the idea of creating a 'total' work of art in which all arts, including architecture would eventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist architecture and modern design.
[1]
The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art , architecture , graphic design , interior design , industrial design , and typography .
The school existed in three German cities ( Weimar from 1919 to 1925, Dessau from 1925 to
1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933), under three different architect-directors: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928, Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its own leadership under pressure from the Nazi regime.
The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. For instance: the pottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar to
Dessau , even though it had been an important revenue source; when Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any su
The Bauhaus
1921/2, Walter Gropius 's Expressionist Monument to the March Dead pporters of Hannes Meyer to attend it.
Futurist architecture (or Futurism ) began as an early-20th century form of architecture characterized by anti-historicism and long horizontal lines suggesting speed, motion and urgency. Technology and even violence were among the themes of the Futurists. The movement was founded by the poet Filippo
Tommaso Marinetti , who produced its first manifesto, the Manifesto of Futurism in 1909. The movement attracted not only poets, musicians, and artists (such as Umberto Boccioni , Giacomo Balla ,
Fortunato Depero , and Enrico Prampolini ) but also a number of architects. The latter group included
Antonio Sant'Elia , who, though he built little, translated the Futurist vision into bold urban form.

Perspective drawing from La Citta Nuova by Sant'Elia, 1914.
The City Beautiful Movement was a Retrogressive reform movement in North American architecture and urban planning that flourished in the 1890s and 1900s with the intent of using beautification and monumental grandeur in cities. The movement, which was originally most closely associated with
Chicago , Detroit , and Washington, D.C.
, did not seek beauty for its own sake, but rather for the common good to create moral and civic virtue among urban populations.
[1] Advocates of the movement believed that such beautification could thus promote a harmonious social order that would increase the quality of life and help to remove social ills.
Chicago's architecture is famous throughout the world and one style is referred to as the Chicago
School . The style is also known as Commercial style .
[1]
In the history of architecture , the
Chicago School was a school of architects active in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century. They were among the first to promote the new technologies of steel-frame construction in commercial buildings, and developed a spatial aesthetic which co-evolved with, and then came to influence, parallel developments in European Modernism . A "Second Chicago School" later emerged in the
1960s and 1970s which pioneered new structural systems such as the tube-frame structure .
[2]
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The Chicago Building is a prime example of the Chicago School, displaying both variations of the Chicago window
While the term "Chicago School" is widely used to describe buildings in the city during the
1880s and 1890s, this term has been disputed by scholars, in particular in reaction to Carl
Condit 's 1952 book The Chicago School of Architecture . Historians such as H. Allen Brooks ,
Winston Weisman and Daniel Bluestone have pointed out that the phrase suggests a unified set of aesthetic or conceptual precepts, when, in fact, Chicago buildings of the era displayed a wide variety of styles and techniques. Other scholars [ who?
] have noted that the phrase implies that
Chicago was the only locus of technical or aesthetic innovation in skyscraper design, when in fact developments in Boston , New York , Philadelphia and Cincinnati often paralleled or preceded similar work in Chicago
[ citation needed ]
. Contemporary publications used the phrase
"Commercial Style" to describe the innovative tall buildings of the era rather than proposing any sort of unified "school".
Chicago School window grid

Some of the distinguishing features of the Chicago School are the use of steel-frame buildings with masonry cladding (usually terra cotta ), allowing large plate-glass window areas and limiting the amount of exterior ornamentation. Sometimes elements of neoclassical architecture are used in Chicago School skyscrapers . Many Chicago School skyscrapers contain the three parts of a classical column . The first floor functions as the base, the middle stories, usually with little ornamental detail, act as the shaft of the column, and the last floor or so represent the capital, with more ornamental detail and capped with a cornice .
The "Chicago window" originated in this school. It is a three-part window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade typically creates a grid pattern, with some projecting out from the facade forming bay windows . The Chicago window combined the functions of light-gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding panes were operable
The term Victorian architecture can refer to one of a number of architectural styles predominantly employed during the Victorian era . As with the latter, the period of building that it covers may slightly overlap the actual reign, 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901, of Queen
Victoria after whom it is named, in keeping with a British and French custom by which architectural styles were named after the reigning monarch.
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1 Varieties of Victorian architecture o 1.1 Styles conceived in the Victorian era o 1.2 Other movements popularized in the period
2 International spread of Victorian styles o o
2.1 North America
2.2 Australia

3 See also
Manchester Town Hall is an example of Victorian Gothic Revival found in Manchester , UK
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 4 References5 External links
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The Cathedral of Vilnius (1783), by Laurynas Gucevičius
Neoclassical architecture was an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century, manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of Late Baroque . In its purest form it is a style principally derived from the architecture of Classical Greece and the architecture of Italian Andrea Palladio .

Classical architecture is a mode of architecture employing vocabulary derived in part from the
Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity , enriched by classicizing architectural practice in Europe since the Renaissance . Classical architecture has inspired many more recent architects and has led to revivals such as neoclassical architecture from the mid-18th century and the Greek Revival of the 19th century.
Common materials of Greek architecture were wood , used for supports and roof beams; plaster, used for sinks and bathtubs; unbaked brick, used for walls, especially for private homes; limestone and marble , used for columns , walls, and upper portions of temples and public buildings; terracotta , used for roof tiles and ornaments; and metals, especially bronze , used for decorative details. Architects of the Archaic and Classical periods used these building materials to construct five simple types of buildings: religious, civic, domestic, funerary, or recreational
The restored Stoa of Attalus, Athens.
There were two main styles (or "orders") of early Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic .
These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages , but this is unlikely to be true.
The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and spread from there to the Greek colonies in
Italy . The Ionic style was used in the cities of Ionia (now the west coast of Turkey ) and some of the Aegean islands. The Doric style was more formal and austere, the Ionic was more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian style was a later development of the Ionic. These styles are best known through the three orders of column capitals, but there are differences in most points of design and decoration between the orders.
Most surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum and the small temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis are Ionic however. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period , since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Records show that the evolution of the Ionic order was resisted by many Greek States, as they claimed it represented the dominance of Athens . Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings , such as

the Library of Celsus , can be seen in Turkey , at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum . But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt , almost nothing survives, so Greek art and architecture was at its apex during this time
The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture around 12th century
B.C. for their own purposes, creating a new architectural style..
The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome , the
Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla , the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all, the Colosseum . They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in
Europe.
The Pont du Gard , an aqueduct bridge in southern France
The Colosseum in Rome, Italy.
The Colosseum in Rome, Italy.