Topic 7
Human Resource &
Communications Management
Schwalbe: Chapter 9, 10
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 1
Learning Objectives
• Explain the importance of good human resource
management on projects, especially on
information technology projects
• Define project human resource management and
understand its processes
• Summarize key concepts for managing people by
understanding the theories of Abraham Maslow,
Frederick Herzberg, David McClelland, and
Douglas McGregor on motivation, H. J. Thamhain
and D. L. Wilemon on influencing workers, and
Stephen Covey on how people and teams can
become more effective
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 2
Learning Objectives
• Discuss organizational planning and be able to
create a project organizational chart, responsibility
assignment matrix, and resource histogram
• Understand important issues involved in project
staff acquisition and explain the concepts of
resource assignments, resource loading, and
resource leveling
• Assist in team development with training, teambuilding activities, and reward systems
• Describe how project management software can
assist in project human resource management
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 3
The Importance of Human Resource
Management
• People determine the success and failure of
organizations and projects
• Recent statistics about IT workforce:
• The total number of U.S. IT workers was more
than 10.1 million in December 2002, up from
9.9 million in January 2002
• IT managers predict they will need to hire an
additional 1.2 million workers in the near future
• Hiring by non-IT companies outpaces hiring by
IT companies by a ratio of 12:1
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 4
Digital Planet Reports
• The global high-tech industry generated more
than $2.1 trillion in 1999, $2.3 trillion in 2000, and
$2.4 trillion in 2001
• The Internet and e-commerce were notable bright
spots in the global economy
• Global e-commerce went up 79 percent from
2000 to 2001
• China, Poland, and other developing countries are
playing an increasing role in the global IT market
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 5
Long Hours & Stereotypes of IT Workers Hurt
Recruiting
• Many people are struggling with how to increase
and diversify the IT labor pool. Noted problems
include:
• The fact that many IT professionals work long hours
and must constantly stay abreast of changes in the field
• Undesirable stereotypes that keep certain people away
from the career field, like women
• The need to improve benefits, redefine work hours and
incentives, and provide better human resource
management
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 6
What is Project Human Resource
Management?
• Project human resource management
includes the processes required to make
the most effective use of the people
involved with a project. Processes include
• Organizational planning
• Staff acquisition
• Team development
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 7
Keys to Managing People
• Psychologists and management theorists
have devoted much research and thought
to the field of managing people at work
• Important areas related to project
management include
• motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic)
• influence and power
• effectiveness
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 8
Motivation
• Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchy of
needs to illustrate his theory that people’s
behaviors are guided by a sequence of
needs
• Maslow argued that humans possess
unique qualities that enable them to make
independent choices, thus giving them
control of their destiny
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 9
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 10
Herzberg’s Motivational and Hygiene Factors
• Frederick Herzberg wrote several famous books
and articles about worker motivation. He
distinguished between
• motivational factors: achievement, recognition, the work
itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth, which
produce job satisfaction
• hygiene factors: cause dissatisfaction if not present, but
do not motivate workers to do more. Examples include
larger salaries, more supervision, and a more attractive
work environment
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 11
McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory
• Specific needs are acquired or learned over time
and shaped by life experiences, including:
• Achievement (nAch): Achievers like challenging
projects with achievable goals and lots of feedback
• Affiliation (nAff): People with high nAff desire
harmonious relationships and need to feel accepted by
others, so managers should try to create a cooperative
work environment for them
• Power: (nPow): People with a need for power desire
either personal power (not good) or institutional power
(good for the organization). Provide institutional power
seekers with management opportunities
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 12
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• Douglas McGregor popularized the human
relations approach to management in the 1960s
• Theory X: assumes workers dislike and avoid
work, so managers must use coercion, threats,
and various control schemes to get workers to
meet objectives
• Theory Y: assumes individuals consider work as
natural as play or rest and enjoy the satisfaction
of esteem and self-actualization needs
• Theory Z: introduced in 1981 by William Ouchi
and is based on the Japanese approach to
motivating workers, emphasizing trust, quality,
collective decision making, and cultural values
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 13
Thamhain and Wilemon’s Ways to Have Influence on Projects
1. Authority: the legitimate hierarchical right to issue orders
2. Assignment: the project manager's perceived ability to
influence a worker's later work assignments
3. Budget: the project manager's perceived ability to authorize
others' use of discretionary funds
4. Promotion: the ability to improve a worker's position
5. Money: the ability to increase a worker's pay and benefits
6. Penalty: the project manager's ability to cause punishment
7. Work challenge: the ability to assign work that capitalizes on
a worker's enjoyment of doing a particular task
8. Expertise: the project manager's perceived special
knowledge that others deem important
9. Friendship: the ability to establish friendly personal
relationships between the project manager and others
Ways to Influence that Help and Hurt Projects
• Projects are more likely to succeed when project
managers influence with
• expertise
• work challenge
• Projects are more likely to fail when project
managers rely too heavily on
• authority
• money
• penalty
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 15
Power
• Power is the potential ability to influence
behavior to get people to do things they
would not otherwise do
• Types of power include
•
•
•
•
•
Coercive
Legitimate
Expert
Reward
Referent
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 16
Improving Effectiveness - Covey’s 7 Habits
• Project managers can apply Covey’s 7
habits to improve effectiveness on projects
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Be proactive
Begin with the end in mind
Put first things first
Think win/win
Seek first to understand, then to be understood
Synergize
Sharpen the saw
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 17
Empathic Listening and Rapport
• Good project managers are empathic listeners;
they listen with the intent to understand
• Before you can communicate with others, you
have to have rapport
• Mirroring is a technique to help establish rapport
• IT professionals often need to develop empathic
listening and other people skills to improve
relationships with users and other stakeholders
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 18
Improving Relationships Between Users and
Developers
• Some organizations require business
people, not IT people, to take the lead in
determining and justifying investments in
new computer systems
• CIOs push their staff to recognize that the
needs of the business must drive all
technology decisions
• Some companies reshape their IT units to
look and perform like consulting firms
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 19
Organizational Planning
• Organizational planning involves
identifying, documenting, and assigning
project roles, responsibilities, and
reporting relationships
• Outputs and processes include
•
•
•
•
project organizational charts
work definition and assignment process
responsibility assignment matrixes
resource histograms
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 20
Sample Organizational Chart for a Large IT Project
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 21
Work Definition and Assignment Process
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 22
Sample Responsibility Assignment Matrix
(RAM)
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 23
RAM Showing Stakeholder Roles
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 24
Sample RACI Chart
R = responsibility, only one R per task
A = accountability
C = consultation
I = informed
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 25
Sample Resource Histogram
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 26
Staff Acquisition
• Staffing plans and good hiring procedures are
important in staff acquisition, as are incentives for
recruiting and retention
• Some companies give their employees one dollar
for every hour a new person they helped hire
works
• Some organizations allow people to work from
home as an incentive
• Research shows that people leave their jobs because they
don’t make a difference, don’t get proper recognition,
aren’t learning anything new, don’t like their coworkers,
and want to earn more money
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 27
Resource Loading and Leveling
• Resource loading refers to the amount of
individual resources an existing project
schedule requires during specific time
periods
• Resource histograms show resource
loading
• Overallocation means more resources than
are available are assigned to perform work
at a given time
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 28
Sample Histogram Showing an Overallocated
Individual
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 29
Resource Leveling
• Resource leveling is a technique for
resolving resource conflicts by delaying
tasks
• The main purpose of resource leveling is to
create a smoother distribution of resource
usage and reduce overallocation
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 30
Resource Leveling Example
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 31
Team Development
• It takes teamwork to successfully complete
most projects
• Training can help people understand
themselves, each other, and how to work
better in teams
• Team building activities include
• physical challenges
• psychological preference indicator tools
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 32
Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• MBTI is a popular tool for determining personality
preferences and helping teammates understand
each other
• Four dimensions include:
•
•
•
•
Extrovert/Introvert (E/I)
Sensation/Intuition (S/N)
Thinking/Feeling (T/F)
Judgment/Perception (J/P)
• NTs or rationals are attracted to technology fields
• IT people vary most from the general population
in not being extroverted or sensing
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 33
Social Styles Profile
• People are perceived as behaving primarily in one
of four zones, based on their assertiveness and
responsiveness:
•
•
•
•
Drivers
Expressives
Analyticals
Amiables
• People on opposite corners (drivers and
amiables, analyticals and expressives) may have
difficulties getting along
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 34
Social Styles
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 35
Reward and Recognition Systems
• Team-based reward and recognition
systems can promote teamwork
• Focus on rewarding teams for achieving
specific goals
• Allow time for team members to mentor and
help each other to meet project goals and
develop human resources
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 36
General Advice on Teams
• Focus on meeting project objectives and
producing positive results
• Fix the problem instead of blaming people
• Establish regular, effective meetings
• Nurture team members and encourage them to
help each other
• Acknowledge individual and group
accomplishments
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 37
Using Software to Assist in Human Resource
Management
• Software can help in producing RAMs and
resource histograms
• Project management software includes
several features related to human resource
management such as
• viewing resource usage information
• identifying under and overallocated resources
• leveling resources
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 38
Resource Usage View from Microsoft Project
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 39
Resource Usage Report from Microsoft Project
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 40
Project Resource Management Involves Much
More Than Using Software
• Project managers must
• Treat people with consideration and respect
• Understand what motivates them
• Communicate carefully with them
• Focus on your goal of enabling project team
members to deliver their best work
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 41
Project Communications Management
Schwalbe: Chapter 10
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 42
Learning Objectives
• Understand the importance of good communication
on projects and describe the major components of a
communications management plan
• Discuss the elements of project communications
planning, including information distribution,
performance reporting, and administrative closure
• Discuss various methods for project information
distribution and the advantages and disadvantages
of each
• Understand individual communication needs and
how to determine the number of communications
channels needed for a project
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 43
Learning Objectives
• Understand how the main outputs of performance
reporting help stakeholders stay informed about
project resources
• Recognize how the main outputs of administrative
closure are used to formally end a project
• List various methods for improving project
communications, such as managing conflicts,
running effective meetings, using e-mail
effectively, and using templates
• Describe how software can enhance project
communications
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 44
Importance of Good Communications
• The greatest threat to many projects is a
failure to communicate
• Our culture does not portray IT
professionals as being good communicators
• Research shows that IT professionals must
be able to communicate effectively to
succeed in their positions
• Strong verbal skills are a key factor in
career advancement for IT professionals
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 45
Project Communications Management
Processes
• Communications planning: determining the
information and communications needs of the
stakeholders
• Information distribution: making needed
information available in a timely manner
• Performance reporting: collecting and
disseminating performance information
• Administrative closure: generating, gathering, and
disseminating information to formalize phase or
project completion
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 46
Communications Planning
• Every project should include some type of
communications management plan, a
document that guides project
communications
• Creating a stakeholder analysis for project
communications also aids in
communications planning
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 47
Communications Management Plan Contents
• A description of a collection and filing structure for
gathering and storing various types of information
• A distribution structure describing what
information goes to whom, when, and how
• A format for communicating key project
information
• A project schedule for producing the information
• Access methods for obtaining the information
• A method for updating the communications
management plans as the project progresses and
develops
•ICT 327
AManagement
stakeholder
communications
analysis
of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 48
Sample Stakeholder Analysis for Project
Communications
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 49
Information Distribution
• Getting the right information to the right
people at the right time and in a useful
format is just as important as developing
the information in the first place
• Important considerations include
• using technology to enhance information
distribution
• formal and informal methods for distributing
information
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 50
What Went Wrong?
A well publicized example of misuse of e-mail comes
from the 1998 Justice Department's high profile,
antitrust suit against Microsoft. E-mail emerged as a
star witness in the case. Many executives sent
messages that should never have been put in writing.
The court used e-mail as evidence, even though the
senders of the notes said the information was being
interpreted out of context.
See example of misunderstanding “pedagogical
approach” on p. 358
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 51
Media Choice Table
The Impact of the Number of People on Communications Channels
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 53
Performance Reporting
• Performance reporting keeps stakeholders
informed about how resources are being used to
achieve project objectives
• Status reports describe where the project stands at a
specific point in time
• Progress reports describe what the project team has
accomplished during a certain period of time
• Project forecasting predicts future project status and
progress based on past information and trends
• Status review meetings often include performance
reporting
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 54
Administrative Closure
• A project or phase of a project requires
closure
• Administrative closure produces
• project archives
• formal acceptance
• lessons learned
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 55
Suggestions for Improving Project Communications
•
•
•
•
•
Manage conflicts effectively
Develop better communication skills
Run effective meetings
Use e-mail effectively
Use templates for project communications
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 56
Conflict Handling Modes, in Preference Order
• Confrontation or problem-solving: directly
face a conflict
• Compromise: use a give-and-take approach
• Smoothing: de-emphasize areas of
differences and emphasize areas of
agreement
• Forcing: the win-lose approach
• Withdrawal: retreat or withdraw from an
actual or potential disagreement
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 57
Conflict Can Be Good
• Conflict often produces important results, such as
new ideas, better alternatives, and motivation to
work harder and more collaboratively
• Groupthink can develop if there are no conflicting
viewpoints
• Research by Karen Jehn suggests that taskrelated conflict often improves team performance,
but emotional conflict often depresses team
performance
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 58
Developing Better Communication Skills
• Companies and formal degree programs for IT
professionals often neglect the importance of
developing speaking, writing, and listening skills
• As organizations become more global, they
realize they must invest in ways to improve
communication with people from different
countries and cultures
• It takes leadership to improve communication
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 59
Running Effective Meetings
• Determine if a meeting can be avoided
• Define the purpose and intended outcome of the
meeting
• Determine who should attend the meeting
• Provide an agenda to participants before the
meeting
• Prepare handouts, visual aids, and make logistical
arrangements ahead of time
• Run the meeting professionally
• Build relationships
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 60
Using E-Mail Effectively
• Make sure that e-mail is an appropriate medium for
what you want to communicate
• Be sure to send the e-mail to the right people
• Use meaningful subjects
• Limit the content to one main subject, and be as clear
and concise as possible
• Limit the number and size of attachments
• Delete e-mail you don’t need, and don’t open it if you
question the source
• Make sure your virus software is up to date
• Respond to and file e-mails quickly
• Learn how to use important features
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 61
Using Templates for Project Communications
• Many technical people are afraid to ask for help
• Providing examples and templates for project
communications saves time and money
• Organizations can develop their own templates,
use some provided by outside organizations, or
use samples from textbooks
• Recall that research shows that companies that
excel in project management make effective use
of templates
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 62
Sample Template for a Project Description
Sample Template for a Monthly Progress
Report
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 64
Sample Template for a Letter of Agreement for a Class Project
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 65
Outline for a Final Project Report
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 66
Final Project Documentation Items
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 67
Gantt Chart Template for a Class Project
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 68
Guidance for Student’s Lessons Learned Report
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 69
Sample Template for a Project Web Site
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 70
Developing a Communications Infrastructure
• A communications infrastructure is a set of tools,
techniques, and principles that provide a
foundation for the effective transfer of information
• Tools include e-mail, project management software,
groupware, fax machines, telephones, teleconferencing
systems, document management systems, and word
processors
• Techniques include reporting guidelines and templates,
meeting ground rules and procedures, decision-making
processes, problem-solving approaches, and conflict
resolution and negotiation techniques
• Principles include using open dialog and an agreed
upon work ethic
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 71
Using Software to Assist in Project
Communications
• There are many software tools to aid in project
communications (see pages 380-381 for several
examples in the What Went Right? section)
• Today more than 37 percent of people
telecommute or work remotely at least part-time
• Project management software includes new
capabilities to enhance virtual communications
• Project 2002’s enterprise edition includes features
for portfolio management, resource management,
and collaboration
ICT 327 Management of IT Projects
Semester 2, 2004
Topic 7- 72