Observation
Learning Objectives
To gain knowledge and
understanding of different types of
observation
To know the difference between
time sampling and event sampling
To have worked out the strengths
and weaknesses of each
Observation
The starting point for any scientific enquiry is
observation.
People started observing thousands of yrs ago
– the sun rose on one side of the landscape
and set on the other and this happened at
regular and predictable intervals.
They observed and recorded and then made
the best sense out of it as possible.
Conclusions were nonsense but the
observations were sound.
Psychologists observe behaviour, record it,
look for patterns and then try to make sense
of it.
The first task is to make good observations
and to devise ways of categorising it to
record it and help our understanding.
The tricky bit is to make sense of it and say
what it means.
What we are looking for is an explanation
that tells us something we didn’t already
know.
Observation is when psychologists
observe the actual behaviour of people
in various kinds of situations.
They try to describe the behaviour as
objectively and accurately as possible.
Of course this is easier said than done,
but an attempt is made to reduce bias,
to make sure that within any one study
all the observers are watching the same
behaviour and measuring it in the same
way.
This involves training your observers and
checking inter-observer reliability
In order to do this it is necessary for
all observers to have a clear idea of
exactly what they are observing: –
the behaviour needs to be
op……….….?
A systematic system for categorising
and recording information needs to
be created. This is known as an
observation schedule
This refers to the consistency of a researcher’s behaviour.
A researcher should make similar observations in the same way on more
than one occasion. Two or more researchers should be able to agree.
Thanks for taking
part today. Any
problems and I’ll
be right over.
Take your time.
How much longer
before I can get in
the pub and relax
my facial muscles?
Right. Let’s get
on. Fast as you
can.
Consistency between
different researchers
working on the same
study is very
important for
reliability
In observational
studies this is known
as inter-observer
reliability –
observers have to
agree on what they
see and carry out
the same procedure
One type of observation is known as
naturalistic observation in which
psychologists try to remain as
inconspicuous as possible so they do not
influence the behaviour they are
observing. This type of observation is said
to have high ecological validity.
Ecological validity is the extent to which
the behaviour being observed reflects
behaviour in ordinary real life situations.
Would you see this as bullying
or horseplay in the
playground?
You would see
this from your
own subjective
viewpoint –
we’re biased by
experience and
expectation
Observers must
agree about what
they are observing
– they need to use
standardised
behavioural
categories
4 types of naturalistic observation
(researcher stays out of the
observation and doesn’t interfere):
1. Structured observation
2. Unstructured observation
3. Covert observation
4. Overt observation
 The researcher decides in advance what
types of behaviour they’re looking for.
 They come up with an observation checklist
to complete during the observation.
 They tally the number of times a particular
behaviour occurs.
 What type of data does this produce?
 This can lead to researcher bias though.
 Operational Definition can be a problem.
 A coding system is also worked out
sometimes.
 Event sampling and time sampling takes
place in this type of observation. However,
usually it’s event sampling.
Time sampling
Sampling behaviour for one or more short
periods of time. Observations at set lengths of time
at set intervals (eg three hourly observations between
08.00-09.00, 12.00-13.00 and 17.00-18.00), or every 5
minutes for a certain period (eg 1 hour).
strengths:
 reduces the amount of time spend and may increase accuracy
weaknesses:
 behaviour may be missed if time samples are limited
Event sampling
Involves observing a particular behaviour and
recording that behaviour every time it occurs.
strengths:
less chance of behaviour of interest being
missed
weaknesses:
limits the behaviour observed
Structured observation
Are observations with a clearly defined system for recording behaviour
strengths
 some control over observer bias
 easier to test inter-rater reliability (high level of agreement between
observers)
weaknesses
 limits the data that can be collected
 means we can’t appreciate true meaning of human behaviour
 Some psychologists say that children learn best through having
behaviour modelled to them, through direct support and
reinforcement and through parents giving prompts and tips while
the child is carrying out a task.
 Watch the video
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibEP4xBdJco&app=desktop)
and make observations on:
 The child’s behaviour
 The reinforcement given
 The prompts that are provided
 Any other interesting features you notice
Complete questions on hand-out and then make it a structured
observation
UNDER COVER.
Participants are unaware that they are
being observed which reduces what?
Participants act naturally.
It is more unethical, why?
Care must be taken not to invade
people’s privacy. As a rule it is OK to
conduct covert observations in public
places.
In psychological research, you’re not
allowed to record observations using
audio or video equipment without
participant’s consent.
Where could you do a covert observation and where couldn’t you?
Write down your list!!
 Participants are aware they’re being observed.
 What does this make it?
 What are the problems with it?
 E.g. Studying gangs behaviour……
An alternative is participant observation
in which observers take an active part
in a social situation, like participating in
an encounter group to study their own
as well as other people’s behaviour
Participant observation
observations are carried out by a person who is
in the group being observed
can be disclosed or undisclosed
strengths:
natural behaviour from participants
(if undisclosed)
understanding of reasons behind
behaviour better
flexible and high ecological validity
weaknesses:
experimenter bias
difficulty in replicating
ethics
The researcher is part of the action
they are observing.
This is a more natural arrangement.
But it’s difficult to take notes when
you’re joining in.
Another problem is researcher bias:
it’s likely that the researcher will
influence the action taking place.
 In the 1950s a social psychologist called Leon
Festinger read a new report about a religious cult
that claimed to be receiving messages from outer
space predicting that the world will end on a
certain date in a great flood. The cult members
were going to be rescued by a flying saucer.
Festinger wanted to know how the cult members
would respond when their beliefs became
unfounded. So he posed as a cult follower and
went to the place on the eve of the destruction.
When there was no flood the group became
disheartened but the leader announced the aliens
had been in contact to say the groups efforts had
saved the day. Some members left the cult after
this but others became even more enthusiastic
supporters!
Event and time Sampling
Time sampling
Event Sampling
+ Greater chance of sampling the
behaviour of how a variety of
different people act in regards to
the subject being studied. So
more representative.
+ Useful when behaviour to be
recorded only happens occasionally
and might be missed if TS was used.
- More time consuming as you
have to watch behaviour over
certain set time intervals.
-The sample you choose to observe
may not be representative as you’re
only watching over one event and
not at intervals.
-Observer may miss some
observations.
Observation is often used to provide
information which can then be used as
a basis for further study, usually by using
other methods.
Observation is the starting point for most
research
Advantages
1. Some observers feel that behaviour will only occur
in its true form in free, natural situations. The
observation method therefore has high ecological
validity.
2. It is possible to collect information about situations
where it is either unethical or impractical to
perform experiments; for example, it is impractical
to carry out an experiment on the effects on
children of transferring from a primary to a
secondary school, but it is well worth observing
these effects
Disadvantages
1.
Observers may be biased and record their own
interpretations of what they are observing. If
observers use predetermined schedules of
observations they may feel that they should fit all
behaviour into one or another category, even
though there may not be a suitable category for
it on the schedule
2.
If people are aware they are being watched,
they may not behave as they normally would
3.
It is difficult to control extraneous variables.
TASK
You going to investigate one aspect of
human behaviour using ‘observation’ as
your research method see bottom p152
Ox and p94 ghg
You must not conduct research that
involves any risk, distress or
embarrassment to participants.
Only observe people in public settings.
Only observe behaviour you wouldn’t
mind being observed doing yourself!
TASK
You need to be clear about what it is that you
are observing – synchronous interaction
You need to operationalise a schedule of
behaviour and create a behaviour check list
H1 – Non-verbal communication becomes
more synchronised as the conversation
develops
You have lesson 3 of this week to conduct
your observation or come and have 1:1 re
any outstanding work
1. Over Christmas you will no doubt spend some time
revising for your mock exams. Use pictures/make mind
maps/keep it active and fun
2. https://www.goconqr.com/enGB/users/sign_in
create your own amazing mind
maps for free
3. Please also complete this worksheet >> Are you really
that well acquainted with the Oxford Text book
4. This is an Attachment Info pack 1 but not the one we
are using in class. As we will be going much faster after
Christmas I think it would be a good idea to go
through this pack – just introducing yourself to key
ideas and concepts. You should obviously read the
whole chapter in your text book too.
5. getrevising is an amazing website – check it out!
6. There are some challenge questions re observations on
the handout on the Blog as well for you to try
Observation Schedule For Children With
Potentially Disruptive Behaviour
Child 1
Shouting
Kicking
Grabbing
Pushing
Child 2
Child 3
 When making observations the main
issue is observer bias – what someone
observes in influenced by what they
expect. So if you expect football fans to
be aggressive, then you might “see”
more aggression.
 This reduces the objectivity and validity
of observations.
 Observer bias can be dealt with by using
more than one observer and averaging
data.
 It can also be improved by keeping the
observers naïve about the purpose of
the observation.