India
Ancient and Modern
The Indian Subcontinent
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The peninsula holds present-day India, Southeastern Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka
In the middle of India lie the Vindhya Hills, and to the north lie
the Himalayas
Differences in language, climate, and terrain within India have
fostered distinct regional and cultural characteristics and artistic
traditions
There are characteristics of Indian art that unite the region:
Distinctive sense of beauty
Visual abundance
Pervasive Symbolism
Vibrant quality of a world infused with dynamics of the divine
Everything is given tactile, sensuous forms, radiant with inner
spirit
Indus Valley Civilization
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Also known as the Harappan
civilization; flourished around 300 to
1750 BCE
Existed along with the Old Kingdom
in Egypt, Minoan Civilization in the
Aegean, and the Dynasties of Ur and
Babylon in Mesopotamia
Seal Impression
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First clue to
existence of the
civilization
Similar to those of
the ancient
Mesopotamians
Most popular
subjects were
animals
The function has
yet to be
discovered
Indus Valley Civilization
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Ancient cities resemble each other in
design and construction
Mohenjo-Daro: best preserved site,
elevated citadel area was discovered
Remarkable water tank with a public bath
remains
Below this elevated area lies the city in a
grid-like plan
Fired brick was used instead of sun-dried
brick
Large Water Tank, Mohenjo-Daro
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Terra-cotta figurines have been
found that reveal a confident
maturity of artistic conception and
technique
Two styles appear: one is related to
Mesopotamian art, the other
foreshadows later Indian tradition
with its sensuous naturalism
Torso of a “priest-king”
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Represents leader or an
ancestor figure
Low forehead, broad nose,
thick lips, and long slit
eyes resemble
Mesopotamian art
His garment is patterned
with trefoil motif
With its formal pose and
geometric from, the statue
conveys commanding
human presence
Nude Male Torso
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Example of naturalistic
style
Less than four inches
tall
Emphasizes soft
texture of the human
body and subtle
nuances of the
muscles
It forecasts the
aesthetic attributes of
later Indian sculpture
Indus Valley Civilization
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No wall paintings have been found from
this civilization
Only thing other objects that have been
found are painted ceramic vessels
They are decorated with zones of bold,
linear designs painted in black slip
The reasons for the demise of the
empire have yet to be found, only
explanation is a possible climate
change or natural disaster
Summary of Buddhism
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Is it a religion? Yes
Is it an applied philosophy? Yes
Founded by: Siddhartha Gauthama
Is it a path to eliminate suffering? Yes (noble eight fold
path)*
Does it endorse the existence of soul? No*
Does it endorse that worldly things are permanent? No*
Does it endorse the existence of worldly happiness? No*
Is it documented? Yes, in the Tipitaka
When was Tipitaka documented? 83 BCE
Where was Tipitaka documented? Sri Lanka
In What Language was Tipitaka Documented? Pali
In what Script was Tipitaka Documented? Sinhala
How large is the Tipitaka? 11 times the size of the Bible
-By around 400 BCE, the eighteen-volume Mahabharata, the
longest epic in world literature, and the Ramayana, the most
popular and enduring religious epic in India and Southeast
Asia were taking shape
-These cornerstones of Indian literature relate histories of
gods and humans that bring the philosophical ideas of the
Vedas to a more accessible and popular level
-Buddhism became a vigorous force in South Asia and
provided the impetus for much of the major art created
between the third century BCE and the fifth century BCE
-At this time, emerged the ideal of upholding dharma, the
divinely ordained moral law believed to keep the universe
from falling into chaos
-Among the monuments erected to Buddhism throughout
Emperor Ashoka’s tenure were monolithic pillars set up
primarily at sites related to events in the Buddha’s life
-Pillars had been used as flag-bearing standards in India
since earliest times
-The fully developed Ashokan pillar, a slightly tapered
sandstone shaft, usually rested on a stone foundation slab
sunk more than 10 feet into the ground and rose to a height
of around 50 feet
Great Stupa at Sanchi
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An 11-foot-tall stone railing rings the entire stupa,
enclosing another, wider, circumambulatory path at ground
level
Carved with octagonal uprights and lens-shaped crossbars,
it probably simulates the wooden railings of the time
This design pervaded early Indian art, appearing in relief
sculpture and as architectural ornament
Four stone gateways, or toranas, punctuate the railing
Set at the four cardinal directions, the toranas symbolize
the Buddhist cosmos
According to an inscription, they were sculpted by ivory
carvers from the nearby town of Vidisha
Buddhist Rock-Cut Halls
Buddhist monks have considered caves and hollowed out sites
to be hallowed grounds, or holy places
Buddhist monks began to hew caves for personal use beginning
around the second century
Exteriors and interiors were carved from top to bottom like
sculpture
Two types of rock cut halls have been predominant in the
monastic community
A vihara is used for living space by the monks
The Chaitya, meaning sacred, usually enshrined a stupa, and
were usually the more developed of the two
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Rock-Cut Halls Continued
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Walls of vestibule are usually
cared in high relief with rows
of small balcony railings
Arched windows that simulate
façade of great multistoried
palaces
Side entrances were usually
approached through shallow
pools of water
Entrances are flanked by
panels of mithuna couples –
amorous male and female
figures
Rock-Cut Halls Continued
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Barrel vault
ornamented with
arching wooden
ribs interior halls
Contained a wide
central aisle and
two narrower side
aisles leading to a
stupa in the apse,
customarily
Kushan and Later Andhra Periods
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During the Kushan periods, Buddhism
undergoes a profound evolution resulting
in the form of Mahayana, or great Vehicle
The Mahayana is a new movement,
which sweeps most of northern India and
eastern Asia, and was probably inspired
the first depictions of the Buddha we are
accustomed to seeing in contemporary
Buddhist art works
Three Schools of the Kushan
Periods
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Two earliest schools of
representaiton arose in
Gandhara region and in the
famoous religious center of
Mathura in central India –
both areas ruled by the
Kushan dynasties
A third school, known as
the Amaravati school
developed to the south
under the Adhra dynasty,
which ruled much of
southern and central India
Gandhara School
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Combines elements of
Hellenistic, Persian, and
native styles
Typical Buddha images –
superhuman figure,
omnipotent and heroic
than the ordinary human
Buddha’s body is
revealed through folds of
garment, and is usually
broad and massive with
heavy features
Mathura School
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Not allied with HellenisticRoman Tradition
 Style evolved from
representations of
yakshas, indigenous male
nature deities
Stele is an important figure
in early Mathura images
 Followers of Mathura
implemented high relief
frequently
Images of Buddha rely on
a repertoire of traditional
gestures, characteristic of
the school
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A mudra is a classic
gesture that expresses
certain ideas, such as
teaching, meditation, or
enlightenment
Amaravati School
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Amaravati works
implemented elements
of Buddha’s life into
themes and subjects
Panels were usually
finished in low relief
These releifs, again,
served time and time
again to decorate
stupas and Buddhist
temples
Buddhist Sculpture
There were two main schools of Buddhist
sculpture during the second half of the fifth century
in Northern India: the Mathura, and the school at
Sarnath.
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•The Sarnath school sought concentrate attention
on the perfected form of the body, which emerges
in high relief.
•This style attempts to reveal the Buddha in
perfection & equilibrium.
Standing Buddha
Standing Buddha
• Embodies the Sarnath Gupta style.
• Figure stands in a relaxed pose, with
broad shoulders and a well proportioned
torso.
• The downcast eyes suggest otherworldly
introspection, yet the gentle posture
conveys a humanly connection.
Gupta Painting
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Gupta aesthetic also found
expression in painting.
Paintings included frescoes and
murals.
These works would adorn the inside
of temples and other religious sites.
Bodhisattva
Bodhisattva
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Bodhisattvas were enlightened
beings who postpone nirvana and
Buddha-hood to help others achieve
enlightenment.
They are distinguished from Buddhas
by their priestly garments.
A naturalistic style is used, balancing
outline and softly graded color tones.
The Post-Gupta Period
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The Gupta-Sponsored Hinduism began to take over
Buddhism as the main religion during the 5th century.
Hindu temples and religious sculptures began to flourish
around India.
The Hindu Temple can be classified into two forms, northern
and southern.
The northern type is distinguished by a superstructure
called a shikhara. The shikhara rises above a solid mass
above the flat stone ceiling and windowless walls of the
sanctum.
Crowning the top is a circular, cushion-like element called
an amalaka.
Vishnu Tempe at Deogarh
Vishnu Tempe at Deogarh
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One of the earliest northern-style
temples
It gave the impression of a mountain
, which is one of several meanings
for a Hindu Temple.
Temple has only one chamber, which
serves as the deity’s residence
Doorway of the Vishnu Temple at
Deogarh
Doorway of the Vishnu Temple at
Deogarh
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The entrance takes a worshiper from the
mundane world into the sacred, symbolizing a
purifying act.
Two river goddesses symbolize the purifying
waters flowing down over the entrance.
Female guardians are also depicted flanking the
doorway.
Vishnu Narayana on the Cosmic Waters
Vishnu Narayana on the Cosmic Waters
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Vision represents the Subtle Body, or
second stage of the deities
emanation.
Vishnu sleeps on the serpent Ananta.
Vishnu is shown dreaming the
universe into existence.
The first thing created is Brahma,
who appears as a four-headed figure.
Monumental Narrative Reliefs
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Shiva was the Hindu god who
protected beasts and inhabited
forests.
He exhibits forms both gentle and
wild.
Many depictions of Shiva are seen in
the Cave-Temple of Shiva on the
island of Elephanta
Cave-Temple of Shiva at Elephanta
Cave-Temple of Shiva at Elephanta
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Pillars of the temple form orderly rowsm but
these rows are hard to distinguish within the
framework of the cave.
Each of the four entances was flanked by statues
of guardian figures.
In the center is the lingam, the phallic symbol of
Shiva.
The lingam represents the presence of Shiva as
unmanifest Formless one.
The lingam is synonymous with Shiva and seen in
almost every Shiva temple and shrine.
Eternal Shiva
Early Medieval Period
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Tenth to seventeenth century
Small kingdoms and dynasties
flourished, which made regional
styles rise
Buddhism declined, while Hinduism
was becoming more popular
Near 1000CE, Hinduism had reached
unparalleled grandeur
Monumental Northern Temple
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Kandariya Mahadeva is a temple dedicated
to Shiva, which was built by a ruler from
the Chandella dynasty
Constructed in the capital, Khajuraho
Temple rests on stone terrace, and has a
steep flight of stairs at the front which
leads to three halls (mandapas)
• Serve ritual purposes such as dancing
and offerings
Monumental Northern Temple
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Despite complexity,
temple has unified
composition
Emphasis on the
vertical thrust of the
superstructure
Exterior walls have
sculpture integrated
• Gods and
goddesses, rituals
portrayed
Monumental Southern Temple
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Cholas were ruling dynasty, with
peak during Rajaraja I
Built Rajarajeshvara Temple to Shiva
as gratitude for victories in battle
Clarity of design, formal balance of
parts, and refined décor contribute to
the majesty
Longitudinal axis and a
superstructure as well
Monumental Southern Temple
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Exterior walls
decorated with
niches (with a
single statue)
Calm balance
through even
spacing
Vimana is a foursided hollow
pyramid that rises
thirteen stories
Bhakti Movement
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Bhakti means devotional type of art,
and evolved primarily in the south
Based on ideas in the Bhagavad Gita,
and a relationship between humans
and deities
Rajaraja’s temple was actually a
reflection of the Bhakti movement
• Frescoes which decorates the corridors
were recently discovered
Bhakti Movement
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The painting found depicts the king
as a simple man, beside his religious
teacher (who he treats with respect
based on alignment)
Both emulate Shiva with ascetic lock
hair
Line is the essence, since it
emphasized on the boldly simple
forms and features, with no
excessive detail
Shiva Nataraja
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Representative of a Chola dynasty
statue, which means Dancing Shiva
It symbolizes the universe’s cycle of
death and rebirth, and the liberation
of a believer through compassion
Sculpture shows Shiva with four
arms dancing on the body of
Apasmaru, a dwarf-like figure
Shiva Nataraja
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Shiva’s left hand holds
a ball of fire, and the
god is encircled by a
ring of fire
Fire represents the
destruction of the
physical universe and
ego-centered
perceptions
The right hand holds a
drum, which
represents the
rhythms of creation
and destruction
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By 1100, India was already among the
world’s oldest civilizations
The art that survives from its earlier
periods is exclusively sacred and most
of it was inspired by the three principal
religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Jainism.
At the start of the Late Medieval Period,
which ranged from 1100 to 1526, these
three religions served as the main
influence of Indian art, even as invaders
began introducing the new religious
culture of Islam.
Buddhist Art
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By the Late Medieval period, the
principal Buddhist centers were
concentrated in the northeast, in the
kingdom ruled by the Pala dynasty
Here, a form of Buddhism was created,
known as Tantric Mahayana.
Tantric Buddhism included techniques
for visualizing deities and developing
iconographic images such as the
bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara
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Bodhisattva are beings who
are well advanced on the path
to buddhahood
Avalokiteshvara, the
bodhisattva of greatest
compassion, became popular
in India and East Asia
Characterized by princely
garments, as opposed to a
normal buddha, that wears
simple monk’s robes.
Recognizable by the lotus
flower and the third eye, which
symbolizes its ability to see in
miraculous ways.
Jain Art
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The Jain religion traces its roots to a spiritual
leader called Mahavira, who is regarded as
the final in a series of 24 saviors known as
pathfinders, or tirthankaras
As Islamic, or Muslim, territorial control
expanded, non-Islamic religions resorted to
private forms of artistic expression, such as
illustrating sacred texts
The Jains of Western India created illustrated
manuscripts such as the Kalpa Sutra
Detail of a leaf with The Birth
of Mahavira
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One of the first Jain
manuscripts on paper
rather than palm leaf
Depicts the birth of
Mahavira
Mahavira is shown cradled
in his mother’s arms as she
reclines in her bed under a
canopy, suggesting her
position of royalty
Vibrant colors and crisp
outlines impart an energy
to the the painting that
suggest the arrival of the
divine in the mundane
world.
Hindu Art
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During the Early Medieval period Hinduism became
the dominant religious tradition of India
During the Late Medieval period, the emphasis on
monumental individual temples gave way to the
building of vast temple complexes and more
moderately scaled yet more richly ornamented
individual temples.
The mightiest of the southern Hindu kingdoms was
Vijayanagar, whose rulers viewed themselves a
preservers of Hindu faith and culture
The enormous temple complex at Madurai, one of
the capital of the Nayaks, is an example of this late,
fervent expression of Hindu faith
Minakshi-Sundareshvara
Temple, Madurai
Mughal Period
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The Mughal dynasty made the most inspired
and lasting contribution to the art of India
Babur, the first Mughal emperor, emphasized his
Turkic heritage and is impressive Mongol
ancestry
After some initial conquests in Central Asia, he
amassed an empire stretching from Afghanistan
to Delphi.
Akbar, the third ruler, would go on to extend
Mughal rule to most of North India.
Mughal Painting
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Akbar created an imperial atelier (workshop) of
painters
This atelier was responsible for creating one of the
most famous and extraordinary works of Mughal art,
the illustrated manuscript of the Hamza-nama.
Paintings from the reign of Jahangir present a
different tone.
Prefered courtly life to adventurous one, and in
Janhangir in Darbar, we see a reflection of his
admiration for realistic detail.
In this painting, Jahangir is shown holding an
audience, or darbar, at court. It is an example of the
exquisitely idealized reality that marks the finest
paintings of Jahangir’s time.
Hamza's Spies Scale the Fortress
Page with Jahangir in Darbar
Mughal Architecture
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Mughal architects were heir to a 300 year old
tradition of Islamic building in India
Their architects had introduced two
fundamental Islamic structures: the mosque
and the tomb
Mughals followed in this tradition,
synthesizing Indian, Persian, and Central
Asian elements for their forts, palaces,
mosques, tombs, and cenographs.
Mughal architectural style culminated in the
most famous of all Indian Islamic structures,
the Taj Mahal
Taj Mahal
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Sited on the bank of the Yamuna River at Agra, in northern
India.
Built between 1632 and 1648 as a mausoleum for emperor Shan
Jahan’s wife
Spacious garden set is divided into quadrants planted with
trees and flowers and framed by long reflecting pools and
broad walkways.
The sides of the platform are carved in relief with a blind arcade
motif, and carved relief panels of flowers adorn the base of the
building
Spandrels are adorned with semiprecious stones, through the
technique of pietra dura
The embellishments and rich ornamentation of the building,
add to the impressive yet delicate appearance of this
masterpiece.