Implementing Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) in Water Projects in Rural Areas, in Al-Mahweet
Governorate
(Case Study: Yelaan, Sawaan and Al-Dahabishah Villages)
A Dissertation Submitted to the Water and Environment Center - Sana’a University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master Degree in
Integrated Water Resources Management
By
Kaid H.S. Al-Sadrah
BSc in Geology
Under the supervision of
Co-Supervisor
Dr. Bilkis A. Zabara
Professor of Physical Chemistry
Main Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Abdulla S. Babaqi
Assistant Professor of Physical Chemistry
Water and Environment Centre (WEC)
Sana’a University
2013AD-1435H
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1
Introduction and Literature Review
1.1
Global Water Problem
Access to safe drinking water and appropriate sanitation are both essential for life. The lack
of safe water on human health is one of the world’s major causes of preventable morbidity
and mortality.
The human health can be affected by many waterborne pathogens, which might enter into
drinking water supply systems or water sources as thermo tolerant (faucal) coliforms. Their
sources are mostly human and animal faeces.
Water Problems in Yemen
In rural areas of Yemen sources of drinking water are mainly surface water, ground water,
spring and rainwater. Access to safe drinking water is very difficult and water networks are
not yet available for most of rural areas. Furthermore, the often natural clean water resources
obtained from springs and rainwater get frequently contaminated with many pathogen and
cause water borne diseases.
The need for safe and clean drinking water became last decades even more necessary, due to
the rapidly growing population, groundwater depletion and increasing pollution (CARE,
2007).
Water Treatment Technologies
In the last decades, more high technical water treatment systems were developed by making
use of chemical, flocculation and filtration techniques. It is worth mentioning that traditional
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and modern treatment systems vary in price, user-friendliness, thus, making them suitable for
different user groups. Some of these methods are discussed in more detail below:
1.3.1 Chemical Disinfection Methods
In general, chlorine is the most effective and simplest chemical disinfectant for drinking
water at an overall level. It is available almost in all countries. The chlorine disinfection
method is capable of killing all forms of bacterial and viral water-borne pathogens.
However, at high concentrations, it can create a minor risk to the human health as
skin irritation and create unacceptable taste for drinking water.(WHO,2004)
Another chemical widely used for disinfection of drinking water is iodine. Like chlorine, it is
very effective for killing or inactivating waterborne pathogens. However, unlike chlorine, it is
not suitable for daily treatment as it causes more serious health problems as dry skin, blood
pressure, cancer and unpleasant taste for drinking water. Chlorine and Iodine are not suitable
for daily treatment, but can be used for short term treatment only (Mattelt, 2006).
1.3.2 Physical Disinfection Methods
Boiling water or Heating water
Boiling water is a widespread technique, but it cost fuel (gas or wood) and time. A temperature of
55°C or above over a period of several hours will inactivate most bacteria.
Solar pasteurization
Solar pasteurization treatment: this could be achieved via putting water into clear plastic
bottles, containers, and containers and exposed to UV in sunlight. The solar radiation in many
regions can obtain temperatures of 55°C inside the container or plastic bottles for several
hours. (Mattelt, 2006).
Solar disinfection systems
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Solar disinfection systems (SODIS) have been improved by adding steps to reduce water
turbidity by using settlement or filtration and increasing effectiveness of UV inactivation by
aeration (shaking water container)(Mattelt, 2006).
Ultra violet lamp
UV light is used for drinking water treatment of some water borne pathogens, due to the fact
that some organisms protozoal cysts, such as Cryptosporidium or Giardia are sensitive to
Ultra violet (UV) irradiation, but resistant to chlorination.
1.3.3 Sedimentation and Filtration Methods
Sedimentation and filtration techniques can be used in drinking water production facilities or
at household level. Sedimentation is mainly used as a pre-treatment or first stage treatment of
water.
Literature Review and Previous Studies
Many studies were carried out in different countries for different water sources, which aimed
at evaluating the effectiveness, performance and the treatment efficiency of many types of
water filters such as Silver Filters and Candle Filters.
In Europe, the drinking water directive of (1998) was developed to set strict standards and
including many safety margins, in order to protect people’s health. Particular elements of
concern are the concentrations provided for micro organisms such as Escherichia coli
(E.coli), water appearance (color) and tastes, chemicals (nitrate and pesticides), and heavy
metals, such as copper and lead. All these substances should be in regulation and acceptable
range or value for every parameter. The parametric value applies to the sum of the
concentration or maximum value of the individual compounds or parameters (Drinking Water
Inspectorate, 2010).
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Previous Studies in Yemen
Considering the above, the inhabitants of Yemen reaped the benefits of the introduction of
ceramic silver water filters. In 2008, Bashir Al Nasiri conducted a pilot study on the health
and socio-economic impact of Silver Impregnated Ceramic Filters (Silver Filters) in 4
villages of Amran Governorate for about 12 months with the support of the SFD and the
former GTZ. The population in the study area used to drink contaminated harvested rainwater
stored in cisterns creating many health problems for its consumers. The study revealed that
the Silver Filter showed a 99% removal of total and faecal coliforms in all households. The
general health for households improved (reduced water borne diseases). This improvement
increased from15% after one month to 68% after 12 months. Diarrhoeal diseases among
children decreased from 63.9% before using filters to 14% after one month of using water
filters. In adults, diarrhoea decreased even from25% to 0%. However, after three months of
silver filters use, diarrhoea started to increase again. This increment could be attributed to
reasons other than filtered drinking water or improper use for water filters. In addition, the
socioeconomic conditions of village households improved as a result of reduced health
treatment expenses from about 9300 YR to less than 5000 YR with some exceptions (AlNasiri.B, 2010).
Integrated Water Resources Management
IWRM is a holistic and dynamic process for the sustainable management, allocation, equity,
and monitoring of the use of water resources with clear social, economic and environmental
development objectives (ESCWA, 2007)& Nagi. M,(2010).
IWRM is an old concept since more than 60 years, but it became popular in the 1990s. The
current and the expected trends in many countries indicate that water problems of the future
will continue to become increasingly more and more complex and intertwined with other
development sectors like agriculture. The concept of IWRM has been promoted by many
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international institutions. For instance, the United Nations Water Conference, which was held
in Mar del Plata, Argentina, in March 1977, indicated more improvement in IWRM. The
conference was an intergovernmental meeting and the action plan for IWRM was approved
by all members of the United Nations at that time. However, the Dublin Conference which
was held in 1992 (a meeting of experts) concluded with the“ Dublin Principles”. Its
recommendations were never approved by any government, irrespective of the claims to the
contrary of the individuals and institutions that were mostly responsible for the organization
of this conference, but now it became popular. The definition for IWRM that is most often
quoted at present was formulated by the Global Water Partnership in 2000, which is defined
as a process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land
and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social livelihood in an
equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. IWRM should
be implementable to find better and more efficient solutions for water problems (Biswas,
2004).
Interventions in Al-Mahweet Governorate
Much attention has been focused on water projects regarding both quantity and quality of the
potable and drinking water within the perspective of IWRM in Yemen. CARE and the former
GTZ are international organizations working in Yemen in many sectors since long time; one
of them is the water sector.
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Map 1.1: Al-Mahweet Governorate, Yemen (CARE, 2007)
CARE Yemen focuses on improving food security and safe water supply, including sanitation
in rural areas. One of its project areas is Al-Mahweet Governorate (three villages called
Yelaan, Sawaan and Al-Dahabishah). Those villages were chosen as they are the poorest
villages in Al-Mahweet Governorate and its households suffer from water shortage and water
quality deterioration. Furthermore, water fetching in these villages is a laborious task for the
women and girls consuming at least two hours per day, preventing them from attending
school or carrying out other activities. Yelaan and Sawaan villages depend on spring water
(photo 1.1&1.2), whereas Al-Dahabishah depend on one private manual water well with a
pump and sometimes rainwater runoff. Drinking water is mostly available throughout the
year with a very limited amount. However, the quality of drinking water in those villages is
low. Drinking water is contaminated, not only because of contaminated water sources (photo
1.3), but also due to bad handling and storage in contaminated containers. Before the
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implementation of the water project in the study area, people did not know that drinking
contaminated water is a source of diseases as diarrhoea, which effects households health.
Water Projects
Two water projects were implemented in the study area, one for Yelaan and Sawaan villages ,
the other one for Al-Dahabishah, that are summarized in table 1.2.
Name of village
Yelaan
Sawaan
Al-Dahabishah
Location
Mountain
Mountain
Wadi
Water source
Spring like shower
Spring
Rainwater runoff
(spring) + manual
water well
Type of Filter
Silver filter
Silver filter
Candle filter
Water net system
- cementing catchment
area and sliding wall
(water source)to collect
water.
- covering water
source
- deepening open water
well to30 m (photo
1.3).
- small gravel basin for
water purification.
- main water storage for
collecting and distributing
water (photo 1.4).
- another water
distribution storage at
village level.
- water storage for
collecting and
distributing water
(photo 1.5)
- iron pipes to
transport the water
from water source to
storage.
-drainage basin to
collect disposal or
waste water.
- iron pipes to transport
water from the source to
the storage.
-water storage for
collecting and
distributing water.
- water pump.
- iron pipes to transport
the water from water
well to water storage.
-plastic pipes from
storage to all
households.
- drainage basin to collect
disposal or waste water.
Literacy class
Gender(Name of
LWA)
Income Generating
Activity(IGA)
One for both villages
One
Al Tafuq for both villages
Al-Dahabishah
A poultry production unit for both villages
(CARE, June2008).
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Honey bee farm
Every water project consists of two components:
A) Component 1 (water net system)
B) Component 2 (IGA and literacy class)
Drinking Water Treatment in the study Area
Safe drinking water quality means that water used directly for human should not cause any health
risk. The physical, chemical and microbiological parameters should be in the acceptable range
prescribed by drinking water guidelines as the WHO guidelines.
As mentioned in component 1, two types of Ceramic filters were introduced during time
projects: the Ceramic Candle Filters and Colloidal Silver Impregnated Ceramic Filters for
treating drinking water at household level to improve the quality of drinking water, as
described here in below:
1. Colloidal Silver Impregnated Ceramic Water Filter (Silver Filter):
Those filters are now produced, sold and used in over 11 countries around the world. In Feb
2007, GTZ (GIZ now) / SFD started a gas fired kiln in Sana’a as a pilot study, which was
funded by the Social Fund for Development (SFD) and the IWRM component of the former
GTZ in Yemen to produce a bucket shaped piece of pottery Silver Filters. The Silver Filters
are produced almost from local material by a local potter factory (photo 1.9).
Raw material (clay) for the ceramic bucket production is taken from different surrounding
places, while the colloidal silver is the only imported filter component. As for plastic bucket,
it is produced by a local manufactory. The Silver Filters have micro-scale pores impregnated
with silver, which is effective for removing bacteria from water.
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Photo 1.10: Colloidal Silver Impregnated Ceramic Filter (CARE, April,2008)
The advantages of Silver Filters can be summarized in several points as follows:

Tested and evaluated in 11 countries.

Treats contaminated water or eliminate bacteria (coliform), which causes diarrhoea.

Removes protozoa (due to small size pores).

Removes suspended solids and turbidity.

Has a residual silver level significantly below WHO guidelines standard.

Reduces illness, so it improves household health and economy.

Produces flow rate of 1.5 – 2.5 liters per hour.
 Are produced from local materials, except the colloidal silver, which has to be
imported.

Are manufactured of clay, which is culturally acceptable.

Generates employment and utilize local skills.

Produces water, less costly effective than bottled water.

Are of affordable costs. Cost of the Silver Filter including both the plastic bucket and
the ceramic clay (pottery) was 3000YR or 1000YR for the pottery only in 2008.

Needs of a brief training for potters, assistants and users for handling.

No need for electricity power.
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Disadvantages of Silver Filters are:

Needs regular maintenance (cleaning).

Possible breakage or easy to break.

Does not remove viruses, pesticides or chemicals.

Ceramic filter bucket needs to be replaced after one to two years.

Difficult to store (PFP, 2004) & (GTZ, 2007-2008).
2. Ceramic Candle filter (Candle filter):
The Second type of Filters is the Ceramic Candle filter, which is used for treating
drinking water in Al-Dahabishah. Such filters are used at the household level
worldwide (Asia, Africa, South America, Central America and North America). In
particular, filters are also used in regions, which are more affected by natural
disasters. The Candle filter technology has been implemented in 22 countries (Mattelt,
2006) & (Murcott, 2006).
The candle filter consists of three parts:

Upper bucket with a lid (plastic).Its capacity is about 10-15 liters filled with untreated
water.

Ceramic candles affixed on the bottom of the upper bucket. It use to treat water and
allow water to flow throw it to lower bucket.

Lower bucket to collect clean water with a capacity of about 10-15 liters, a lid and a
tap used as an outlet for clean or treated water.
The above plastic buckets and tap can be produced locally, while Ceramic candle is imported
for filtering treatment component. Plastic buckets size can either be larger o smaller.
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Figure 1.2: Ceramic Candle Filter(Candle Filter)
Advantages of Candle Filters are:

Easy to use.

Treats contaminated water (eliminates bacteria).

Removes turbidity.

Cheaper than the silver filter (it cost about700-1000 YR in 2008).

Produces water, less costly effective than bottled water.

No need for electricity power.
Disadvantages of Candle filters are:

Possible breakage during cleaning, difficult to clean.

Requires regular cleaning.

Does not remove viruses, pesticides, or chemicals.

Candle filter unit (candle bar) needs to be replaced after 6 – 12 months.

Candle filter unit (bar) can be replaced by households themselves, so sometimes it
could not be fixed properly, which will effect filtered water quality.

Filtered water is not enough for big families, but larger plastic buckets can be used.
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The Role of Women in Water Management
As already mentioned women in these villages are responsible for fetching water from water
sources and spend a lot of time each day to fetch water for household needs.
CARE started the Rural Women’s Empowerment Project in Al-Mahweet governorate,
Yemen, through establishing of local women’s associations (LWAs) in rural areas. In March
2004, CARE setup a LWA in Yelaan and Sawaan, called Al Tafuq, which was funded by the
German Government (a BMZ funded project). Since July 2006, the rural women
empowerment projects had provided assistance to the LWA in the form of capacity building.
This LWA has 75 members and constructed a literacy class for women, before implementing
the water project which targeted at the first round 30 women, who were trained in basic
reading and writing. CARE and GTZ later implemented in 2008 a poultry unit as an Income
Generating Activity (IGA)
The second LWA was established in Al-Dahabishah village (Bani Saad district) constituting
of 57 members for which a literacy class was constructed. The IGA in Al-Dahabishah is a bee
keeping (honey bee farm). However, the literacy classes, water projects and IGAs are
managed by LWAs. In addition, women in the three villages play a major role in water
quality improvement.(CARE, July, 2008).
Training and Awareness
Many awareness campaigns for men and women were conducted on water borne diseases,
hygiene and sanitation, in addition to training on testing the filtered water to be used for
drinking and training on the maintenance of water filters. This will rise up households
awareness on hygiene, especially about diarrhoea to improve households health and
socioeconomic.
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Objectives
This study was conducted to evaluate the implemented water projects in Yelaan, Sawaan, and
Al-Dahabishah villages based on IWRM perspectives over a period of 6 months as follows:
- Study changes in water quantity and quality after constructing new water supply systems.
- Study the effectiveness of provided water filters in Yelaan and Sawaan villages in AlMahweet Governorate.
- Evaluate the role of gender (men and women) in water management in the villages under
study.
2 Methodology
2.1 Field Study
Many field visits were conducted in three villages Yelaan, Sawaan and Al-Dahabishah in AlMahweet Governorate, Yemen. The purpose of such visits was to collect baseline data about
villages, population and their activity. In addition, the study covered water borne diseases,
households health, changes in water quality, quantity and socioeconomic either before
implementing water project or after. The study implied role of women in project
management, the effectiveness of water filters in water quality and health. Global Position
System GPS readings were taken for every village to determine their location. See map 1.2.
2.2
Baseline Data Collection
Baseline data for the villages were gathered by the author as required in a field survey during
December 2007 to January 2008 (demography, topography, education, climate, water
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sources, water quality, quantity, and health, etc). Furthermore, such data were obtained from
CARE Yemen reports and the Central Statistical Organization (CSO). A situation analysis
was carried out at field level to collect data about water management, health, socioeconomic,
activities and services provided in all villages, which are under study. Such data were used to
evaluate situation in the villages before and after implementation of water projects within
IWRM aspects.
2.3
Preparation of Questionnaires and Conduct of Field Visits
Three types of questionnaires (see annex A) were designed through face to face interviews,
which were randomly conducted with men and women in the villages. The 1st questionnaire
included questions to analyze situation prior to implementation of the water projects at the
field level concerning water quantity, quality, health, time consumed to collect water,
education, services, activities etc for each village. The 2nd and 3rd questionnaires were
prepared to study impact of water filters distributed among households and impact of the
constructed water systems in the villages (twice after three and six months) of such
implementation respectively. These questionnaires were designed to evaluate health and
socioeconomic impacts on the households and to what extent the IWRM concept was
successfully applied for all villages. The questionnaires included questions about improved
water quantity and quality (improvement of health and socioeconomic aspects), changes in
filters efficiency, time saving for women, changes in attitudes of households towards water
uses and finally sustainability of the projects. In addition, focus group discussions were held
with some women from the Local Women Association (LWA), with Sheikhs of the villages,
school teachers and other individuals. The number of households, who were interviewed in
each field visit in all villages, is described in table 2.1.
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Number of households
Number of households interviewed after
interviewed before
start using water filter, and implementing the
implementing the water
water project
project
Village
1st Visit (questionnaire#1)
2nd Visit
3rd Visit
After 3 months
After 3 months
(questionnaire#2)
(questionnaire#3)
Yelaan
9
10
22
Sawaan
14
10
28
Al-Dahabishah
15
18
0
38
38
50
Total
Table 2.1: Total number of households, who were interviewed in each visit
Technical Studies
The technical studies included water samples collection, water testing and analyzing in the
field (villages) and at NCPHL as described below:
2.4.1 Water Sampling
Water samples were randomly taken and collected from different locations (water
sources, and households) to know where possible contamination could takes place by
testing water quality.
A total of 122 water samples were collected from the villages, (from water sources and
randomly chosen households) prior, and after use of water filters. These water samples (88)
were tested at the villages (field) and 34 at NCPHL (Sana’a). The exact number of
water samples per village is presented in table 2.2.
2.4.2 Water Testing and Analysis
Two types of water testing were carried out, namely:
2.4.2.1 Water Testing Processing and Analysis in The field (villages)
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All collected water samples were tested for physicochemical and microbiological
parameters, before and after the use of the water filters. In order to show the effect of
the water filters and the project, water sampling analysis were conducted before the
project implemented and after start of the project (1, 3 and 6 months) respectively.
Water analysis were conducted by using Oxfam DelAgua kit, which can be used in thefield
for testing water color, odour, turbidity, pH and faecal coliforms (E. coli).
2.4.2.1.1 Physical Water Quality Parameters
- Color
- Odor
- Turbidity
2.4.2.1.2 Chemical Water Quality Parameters (pH)
2.4.2.1.3 Biological Water Quality Parameters.
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Figure2.2: Oxfam DelAgua kit tools, which was used at field for water test
2.4.2.2 Water Testing and Analysis at (NCPHL) in Sana’a
The water samples tested in NCPHL, samples were taken correctly and transported as
soon as possible in a carton box from the villages to Sana’a city. The box was used to
prevent water samples from sunlight and avoid bacterial growth. At a laboratory, water
samples were tested and analyzed for many parameters, which were pH, Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Hardness (TH), calcium
hardness, bicarbonate (HCO3-), chloride (Cl-), sulfate (SO4-), sodium (Na+), potassium
(K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), manganese (Mn2+), copper (Cu),iron(Fe2+), lead
(Pb), cadmium(Cd), and microbiological (total and faecal coliforms).
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Laboratory tests, also were carried out to ensure data accuracy as a backup for water
testing at field level for biological parameters and to see if there is any change in water
quality before and after use of water net system and water filters. As a reminder, water filters
in the villages are not made or not used for chemical treatment. Table 2.4
summarizes total tested samples per village, which were tested at the field (villages) and at
NCPHL.
Table 2.4: Number of water samples per village, which were tested at the villages and at NCPHL
Prior to filter
Total
Past filter distribution and use
distribution
samples
Test 1
Village
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
Prior to use W.F After 1 month After 3 months After 6 months
Before
After
Before After Before After Before
After
Yelaan1
9
0
4
4
0
9
2
6
34
Sawaan1
7
0
4
4
1
5
1
7
29
Al-Dahabishah1
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
16
25
Yelaan2
5
0
0
4
0
4
0
4
17
Sawaan 2
5
0
0
4
0
4
0
4
17
Total samples
26
0
8
16
1
22
12
37
122
Data Analysis and Interpretation
All gathered data of the questionnaires and water quality tests were analyzed using Microsoft
Excel. The purpose of analysis and interpretation of the data was to evaluate impact of the
water projects (water filters, water net systems and IGAs) within IWRM aspect on the
following:
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1. Water management changes: using water net system (water storages, water pipelines and
water filters), will improve water quality and increase collected water quantity by preventing
water from losing and filtration.
2. The effectiveness of water filter: after use of water storages, water pipelines, drinking
water will be cleaner than before, but not clean from E. coli (not safe), so householders use
water filters to kill this bacteria. If water filters are effective, they will reduce diarrhoeal
diseases and all households have access to clean water (equity). This will improve households
health and save diarrhoea treatment money, which will improve socio-economic of the
households.
3. The effectiveness of water storage and water net to saving time: Using water storage and
water pipelines, it will also save a lot of time for collecting and transporting water for daily
uses, especially for women and girls in dray seasons. Having said that, they can use this time
to do any other activities, which could improve family-income (socio-economic).
4. Improve education: saved time, as motioned above will give opportunity for women to
join literacy classes and girls to join schools, in addition to attend to water test training and
awareness. By doing so, education in the villages will increase (improved) and raise up their
awareness on the importance of clean drinking water, using water filter to reduce diarrhoea.
This will also improve socio-economic and health.
5. Health and socioeconomic of households: all above mentioned factors will improve health
(reduced water borne diseases), socio-economic and livelihoods of households.
6. Role of women on the project: women play a key role in water use and water project
management. They are responsible for collecting water for daily uses, cleaning water filters
also cooking and providing drinking water for all family members. Additionally, women
and girls will be involved in awareness campaign, literacy classes and schools, this will
improve their education and raise up level of awareness on water borne disease and general
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health. Women will join local associations (LWA) and make use of IGAs revenue under
LWA management. Involving women within LWAs (as staff), IGAs, water projects and
literacy classes management, all will form factors that give power for women to learn
reading, writing self-confidence and take role as decision makers in regard to water project
management.
7. Sustainability of the project: improving women skills in education and management, in
order to build up their confidence, and then be able to use the revenue from IGAs for operate
and sustain IGAs themselves, literacy classes and water net system maintenance, which will
lead to water project sustainability. Thus, all of above mentioned factors will improve
livelihood of the households in the study area.
Training and Awareness
Many awareness sessions were conducted in classes in the villages for both women and men
on the importance of water quality for health, especially children, water borne pathogen and
hygiene. The sessions were conducted by the author and CARE consultant to rise up women
awareness. A little amount of money (500YR) was given to every woman or man, who
participated in such awareness sessions to encourage them to attend. In addition, many
training sessions on testing drinking water from filters and without using filters, were
conducted for some men, and women (including some LWA members) of the villages.
Drinking water quality testing targeted some water quality parameters to proven to
households that drinking water is clean and water filters killing bacteria. The above training
and awareness created positive effect in importance of drinking water quality especially for
children, using water filter and reducing diarrhoeal diseases, which will improve health and
socioeconomic. (CARE, July 2008)
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Photo 2.1.Women and Men awareness sessions for both (Yelaan and Sawaan)villages
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3 Results and Discussion
As a reminder for the reader, the main project was carried out by CARE started first in
Yelaan and Sawaan villages to establish a new water system and introduce Silver Filters to
their community. Later on, CARE added Al-Dahabishah village to the project by introducing
the Candle Filters. The overall goal was to provide villagers in Al-Mahweet governorate with
sufficient and clean potable water.
3.1 Baseline Data
3.1.1 Study Area
Al-Mahweet governorate is situated in the Western Highlands of Yemen (about 2100 meters
above sea level), 111 km north-west to Sana'a city, capital of the Republic. It’s boundaries
from the north are Hajah and Amran governorates, from the east Sana’a governorate, from
the south Sana’a and Al-Hodaidah governorates and from the west Al-Hodaidah governorate.
Al-Mahweet governorate consists of 9 administrative districts namely Al Khabt, AlMahweet, Al-Mahweet City, Al Rujum, Al-Taweelah, BaniSaad, Hufash, Milhan, and
Shibam Kawkaban. The area of Al-Mahweet governorate is about 2452 km2. This study was
conducted in Yelaan and Sawaan villages located in Al-Taweelah district and Al-Dahabishah
village situated in Bani Saad district(ar.Wikipedia.org), (Census, 2004).
3.1.2 Topography and Climate
The topography of Al-Mahweet governorate varies from mountainous to plain areas. The
mountainous region is covered partly by vegetation and is famous for its many fortresses and
is laced with springs. The plains consist of deep and large wadis (valleys) such as Wadi
Sar'a, Wadi Al-Ahjur and Wadi Al-Iyoun. Rainwater runoff flows from mountains and wadis
to the western coastal plain, then to the Red Sea. Yelaan and Sawaan villages are
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mountainous areas with an average elevation of 2350 m. Al-Dahabishah is a village situated
in a deep wadi (Wadi Sar'a) with an average elevation of 670 m (own GPS reading). The
climate in mountainous areas of Al-Mahweet governorate according to the author’s own
observation is cold in winter (0-15 °C) and moderate to hot (15-30°C) in summer as in
Yelaan and Sawaan villages. However, in the plains bordering like the Tihama Strip or wadis,
climate is hot in summer (20-40°C) and almost moderate to cool in winter (5-20°C) as in AlDahabishah village.
3.1.3 Geology of Al-Mahweet
The topography of Al-Mahweet is various, between mountain plain, rock plateaus and basins
with scattered outcrops. The basin of Al-Mahweet was formed by separation of the Arabian
peninsula from the continent of Africa during the period (45-15) million years and formed
sediment of silt and clay, which is suitable for agriculture (El-Anbaawy, 1985). The
important outcrops of Al-Mahweet area are the Amran Group (carbonate rocks) and AlTawilah Group (clastic rocks) (Fig. 3.1). There are many faulted systems, mostly of it NWSE trending structure, Which is the same direction as the opening of the Red Sea (Map. 3.1).
In addition, there are many formations (rock units) formed in Al-Mahweet area as follows:
Basement rocks.
The basement consists mostly of highly metamorphosed rocks (quartzite, marble and schist
etc) ranged in age from Archean to Early Proterozoic and slightly metamorphosed Late
Proterozoic to Early Cambrian complexes.
The sedimentary sequence of Al-Mahweet area is composed of different rocks ranged in age
from Cambro-Ordovician to Cretaceous age (Fig. 3.1).
The sedimentary sequence of this basin, which overlies the basement rocks, starts with the
following rock units from base to top ( Beydoun et al, 1998):
Wajid Formation.
24
Wajid sandstone formation, mostly consists of fluvial sandstone deposited in CambroOrdovician age.
Akbara Formation.
Akbra shales (Permian age) is composed shale with minor sandstone. The depositional
environment of Akbara formation is Glacial environment (Beydoun et al, 1998).
Kuhlan formation.
Kuhlan formation (Bathonian to Kimmeridgean) it represents the basal Jurassic rock unit,
which is composed of sandstone with minor amounts of conglomerate, shale and limestone.
Amran Group.
This group age is Jurassic older than AL-Tawilah Group. It consists of many formations,
starting from bottom to top of group as follows:
Shuqra Formation: (Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian).
This formation had been deposited in a broad shallow shelf environment. This unit is
predominantly a platform carbonate with local reefal build-up.
Madbi Formation: (Kimmeridgian to Tithonian).
It consists of various facies including shallow to relatively deep marine carbonate, shallow
marine sandstone, turbidite and organically rich mudstone.
Naifa Formation: (Tithonian-Berriasian).
This rock unit consists of argillaceous limestone and calcareous mudstone with minor
sandstone mainly deposited in shallow water environment.
Tawilah Group: (Cretaceous).
The original type section was described by Lamare (1930) in Jable AL-Tawilah, which is the
centre of district Al-Tawilah, Al-Mahweet governorate. It is about 50 Km NW Sana’a city.
The thickness is about 200-300 m. Yelaan and Sawaan are located in Al-Tawilah district
(Beydoun et. al, 1998). AL-Tawilah sandstone is a good aquifer and recharge the ground
25
water. Lithology of AL-Tawilah Group is sandstone, white to yellowish and brown, fine
coarse grain, gravely and cross bedded sedimentary structure. The beds of Al-Tawilah group
cutting by intrusion of dyke and tertiary volcanics. Stratigraphic sections of AL-Tawilah
group occurs in many places in Yemen, within the tertiary volcanic rocks.
Quaternary rocks.
The Quaternary rocks at the top of the geological formation mostly, lacustraine deposits,
loests and ancient dunes, gravel, older alluvium as conglomerate and active alluvium (ElAnbaawy, 1985).
26
27
Map 3.1: Geological map of Al-Mahweet area (study area)
Figure 3.1: Lithostratigraphy of the Sana’a and Al-Mahweet basins
(Beydoun et al, 1998).
Population
Al-Mahweet governorate has a total population of 495 045 inhabitants according to the 2004
census (Census, 2004). The population of villages under study according to the 2004 census
are given in detail in table 3.1 while those as of date of field survey (November, 2007) are
reflected in table 3.2. (CARE, April,2008)
28
Table 3.1: Population of Yelaan, Sawaan and Al-Dahabishah villages (Census, 2004)
No. of
Village
District
Population
No. of
Males
Females
Houses
Families
Yelaan
Al-Taweelah
315
32
16o
155
41
Sawaan
Al-Taweelah
404
24
185
219
47
Bani Saad
333
72
146
187
63
Al-Dahabishah
Table 3.2: Population of Yelaan, Sawaan and Al-Dahabishah villages from field2 survey
(CARE, 2008) with Census 2004
Population
No. of Families
Village
2004
2007
Yelaan
The
2004
2007
41
41
Sawaan
719
700
47
46
Al-Dahabishah
333
350
63
40
baseline
data survey revealed that the majority of households (about 70%) in all 3 villages have 5-10
members as shown in table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Family size (number of persons in every household) of 3 selected villages
Village
Total
Number of
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
%
persons
2
%
In specific: the differences in Population and No. of families in 2004 and 2007 survey because of some
houses( families) was faraway from villages and not including in water projects.
29
<5
21.4
11.1
6.7
13.1
5 – 10
64.2
77.8
66.7
68.4
11-15
14.2
11.1
20.0
15.7
> 15
0
0
6.7
2.6
3.1.4 Socio-economic
Most people in these villages depend on agriculture and cattle breeding for their income.
They cultivate crops, such as sorghum, alfalfa, wheat and barley, on terraces mainly for
household consumption. They cultivate Qat, which consumes a lot of water, however, it is
considered as an important cash crop. It is more and more replacing other essential crops of
high nutritional importance. Cattle breeding as cows, goats, sheep and chicken breeding are
the main activities for self-subsistence and income. Some men work as teachers or soldiers,
while some others are self-employed in free trade and handicraft. Some men work abroad of
Yemen, and some families migrated to the bigger cities due to water scarcity and for better
job opportunities (CARE, April,2008).
3.1.5 Public Services
Schools
Most villages in Al-Mahweet have limited basic educational services. There is one school for
both Yelaan and Sawaan for basic education (up to grade 9) with 163 students (113 boys and
50 girls). In Al-Dahabishah, education is only available up to grade 6 for both boys and girls.
Before implementing the water project, in 2004, CARE constructed one literacy class for
women of Yelaan and Sawaan managed by a Local Women Association (LWA) called Al
Tafuq, which started in March 2004 with the assistance of CARE and financial support of the
German Government (BMZ). In 2006, CARE constructed one literacy class for women in AlDahabishah. Every class is managed by the LWA in the village, while CARE provided them
30
with training material. The salary of a young female teacher is being paid by the IGA
revenue. The first group of 20 women in Yelaan and Sawaan literacy class, the time of first
group was for 9 months.
Electricity
No public electricity exists in the three villages. Most households use small electric
generators for lighting at night, TV and charging mobile phones, while some households (the
poorest) use gas or kerosene lamps for lighting at night.
Transportation
In all villages under study, there is no public transportation. Steep, bumpy, gravel roads
connect the villages with the capital of district. Besides, most people use cars for
transportation. Al-Dahabishah village is about 13 km (30 minute by car) away from Bani
Saad (capital of district) and 177 km from Sana’a city ( about 4 hours by car). In AlDahabishah village, the government started to construct a new paved asphalt road in Wadi
Sara'a, close to the village, connected to Bani Saad and Al-Mahweet city. The distance from
Yelaan and Sawaan villages to Al-Taweelah (capital of district) is about 8 km (1/2 hour by
car), while the distance to Sana’a city is 87 km (2 hours by car).
Communication
For communication, people use mobile phones, while public telephone and internet networks
are not available in the villages.
Water Resources
No public water network exists in the villages. The source of water in Yelaan is a spring
which drips slowly like a small shower from a mountain cliff into a small clay basin or
collection area. Sawaan water source is a spring which merges between two rock layers and
collects in a small basin. A lot of water gets lost, dripping away by wind, and evaporating
31
without being collected. Additionally, water is lost by infiltration in the clay basin, which
increases water scarcity.
Before implementing the water project, the water source for major households in AlDahabishah until 2006 was a spring, water flow into a water bed (rain water runoff). The
water yield is low and some water is lost by infiltration. In addition, 3 private open manual
water wells are used by their owners for drinking and agriculture purposes. Under the
supervision of CARE, the well owned by the Sheikh of the village was deepened further from
20 m to 30 m and connected with a new water network (storage and pipelines) including a
water pump. Since then, this well has been used as a main drinking water source for the
village, but still remaining uncovered (exposed to contamination). In all villages, water is
mostly available all year long, but neither securing water quantity nor quality as the sources
are unprotected. Water collection is a time consuming task, as water is dripping down slowly
particularly in Yelaan and Sawaan. Additionally, the roads of about 1 to 2 km from the centre
of villages to the water sources are steep. Women and girls are mainly responsible for
domestic water collection, spending an average of two hours per day. Attending school is
therefore a great challenge for girls at school age. Two schemes with an overview of water
sources, water project and public services are shown in figure 3.1 and 3.2 for Sawaan and
Yelaan, and Al-Dahabishah villages, respectively. (CARE, April,2008)& (CARE, July,
2008).
32
Figure 3.2: Water system schematic for Yelaan and Sawaan villages (CARE,
April,2008)
Figure 3.3: Water system schematic for Al-Dahabishah village
33
Before implement water projects, table 3.4 indicates that a total of 84.2% of respondents in
all villages collect water more than three times per day. The lower frequency of collecting
water per day in Sawaan could be due to water scarcity, smaller family size and using
donkeys to transfer larger water quantities, whereas the higher frequency of water collection
per day in Yelaan could be due to the difficulty to pass the bumpy road to the source by
donkeys or due to bigger family sizes.
Table 3.4: Frequency of collecting water per day in 3 selected villages
Village
Frequency of collecting
water per day
Total
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
%
%
Once
7.1
0
0
2.6
Twice
0
0
0
0
Three times
14.2
11.1
13.3
13.1
More than three
78.7
88.9
86.7
84.2
Water is collected in jerry cans (plastic containers) of about 20 L. Nearly 57.1% and 77.8%
of households in Yelaan and Sawaan, respectively, collect 100-180 L/day, because of water
scarcity, while in Al-Dahabishah about 73% of households collect quite over this rate, see
table 3.5. Higher water consumption in Al-Dahabishah might be referred to higher
temperature in the wadi and due to larger family size (more than 15 family members). In
Yelaan the majority 88.9% collecting water more then 3 times (they transfer water on foot
only, table 3.6).
34
Table 3.5: Estimated amount of water collected by households in liter per day in 3
selected villages
Village
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
Total
%
%
%
%
40 – 80 l/day
28.5
22.2
6.7
18.4
100 – 180 l/day
57.1
77.8
20
47.3
200 – 280 l/day
14.2
0
46.6
21
0
0
26.7
10.5
Amount of water
+ 300 l/day
All households in Yelaan and Sawaan transfer water from the sources to houses mostly on
foot as there is no car passage (no road). In Al-Dahabishah, all households transfer water by
donkeys, in addition 53.3% transfer water on foot and 26.6% partially by cars (before water
project). Some households use both methods during periods of water shortage. They transfer
water filled in jerry cans from other villages, which are close to Al-Dahabishah using cars,
then further by donkeys or on foot to houses.
Table 3.6: Methods of water transfer from sources to houses in 3 selected villages
Village
Methods
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
%
On foot
100
100
53.3
By donkey
7.1
0
100
Others (car)
0
0
26.6
The potential risk factors for diarrhoeal illness according to respondents might be the existing
open sewage systems as a possible cause of water source pollution or contamination in
households of Sawaan (71.4%), Yelaan (88.9%) and Al-Dahabishah (33.3%) as seen in table
35
3.7. Although, many old houses do not have latrines (open defecation), the absence of latrines
seems only to be the second risk factor according to 40% of respondents in Al-Dahabishah
and 21.4% respondents in Sawaan. This might be an indication of lack of awareness about the
causes of water source contamination and as has been confirmed by respondents in later
questions. However, it is noticed that hand washing after defecation and washing prior food
preparation seems not to be a high potential risk in Sawaan and Al-Dahabishah with some
exceptions in Yelaan, due to lack of knowledge and weak awareness. In some villages, more
than one potential risk health factor might cause diarrheal diseases.
Table 3.7: Frequency of potential risk factors for diarrhoeal illnesses before water
filters used by households of 3 selected villages
Village
Potential risk factors
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
%
No latrine
21.4
0
40
Open sewage system
71.4
88.9
33.3
Closed sewage system
7.1
11.1
26.7
0
22.2
0
*No hand washing
*No hand washing after defecation and prior of food preparing
Water Quality
For water analysis results, (refer to tables 3.24, 3.25, 3.26), almost all water sources
(households and natural sources of water) were contaminated with faecal coliforms prior to
implementing the water projects in villages under study, noting that water sources being not
protected.
Health Care
36
Before implementing the water projects and prior to the use of water filters, the frequency of
diarrhoeal illnesses among children was high, especially in the age group under 5 years. The
average diarrhoeal incidences during the last 3 months was 86.8% of total households and
seems to be a major health problem in the three villages under survey, see table 3.8. The high
frequency of diarrhoeal illnesses might be an indication of microbiological water source
contamination (faecal coliform) particularly in Yelaan and Al-Dahabishah, where the water
sources are open and therefore unprotected. The low frequency of diarrhoeal illnesses in
Sawaan might be referred to the relative clean water source (from rocks), but improper water
handling during and after water collection, causing contamination (see water sample test
results).
Table 3.8: History of diarrhoeal illnesses among children prior to the use of water filters
in 3 selected villages
Frequency of
Village
diarrhoeal
Total
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
%
%
Positive (yes)
78.6
100
86.6
86.8
Negative (no)
21.4
0
13.3
13.1
illnesses
3.2 Impact of Study
3.2.1 Use and Effectiveness of Water Filters
A total of 52.6% households located their filters in the sitting room (almajles) after one
month of distributing water filters (table 3.9). Almajles is a sitting room, where the family
spends its time with guests. However, 34.2% placed water filters in the living room (hall).
The living room is usually a hall, where the family has its daily meals. The reasons for
choosing these locations were for filter accessibility (65.7%) and for safety (37.3%).
37
Table 3.9: Placement of water filters and reasons for location selection, in 3 selected villages
Village
Places and reasons
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
Total
%
%
%
%
Kitchen
10
10
5.6
7.8
Living room (hall)
30
40
33.3
34.2
Sitting room(almjles)
60
40
55.6
52.6
Storehouse(inside home)
0
10
5.6
5.2
Safe
10
60
61.1
37.3
Easy accessible
80
60
61.1
65.7
Clean
20
30
22.2
23.6
No reason
10
0
5.6
5.3
Place
Reasons to choose place
After 3 months of filters usage, in 100%, 60% and 83.3% of households in Sawaan, Yelaan
and Al-Dahabishah, respectively, all family members have had access to filtered water.
Traditionally, priority in accessing filtered water was given to men while chewing Qat, in
particular in 30% and 16.7% of households in Yelaan and Al-Dahabishah, respectively. Table
3.10 clearly indicates an increased distribution of filtered water for children and women after
6 months in Yelaan and Sawaan. The main consumers of filtered water after six months by all
family members reached about 72.7% in Yelaan and 50% in Sawaan. According to 21.4%
and 18% respondents of Sawaan and Yelaan, respectively, only children were drinking
filtered water, which was not the case after 3 months. The increase in the consumption of
filtered water by children after 6 months is a positive sign for increasing in awareness.
Women drinking filtered water increase after 6 months to 25.4% and 4.5% in Sawaan and
Yelaan. This change may be interpreted as increased gender sensitivity among the population
or increased awareness of the importance of keeping women health's upright.
38
Table 3.10: Main consumers of filtrated water, in 3 selected villages after 3and 6 months of
use water filters
After 3 months
Consumers of
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
Men only
0
Women only
Children only
filtered water
All family
members
After 6 months
Al-
Al-
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
%
--
30
16.7
7.1
13.6
--
0
0
0
25.1
4.5
--
0
10
0
21.4
18.1
--
100
60
83.3
50
72.7
--
Dahabishah
Dahabishah
Drinking filtered water in and out door reveals for about 40-80% and 30-50% of households,
respectively, after 3 months as shown in table 3.11. In Al-Dahabishah, this percentage is less
than other villages, which might be an indication of the insufficiency of filtered water. The
remaining households in the villages almost drink unfiltered water. Drinking bottled or clean
potable water (filtered water) became a habit in many Qat sessions in urban and rural areas
giving people a prestigious status. Men and women from less wealthy families in this villages
try to keep up with wealthy people. In the villages under study, men of about 40-50 % of
households drink filtered water in Qat sessions. Improving health could be a reason to an
increased willingness of buying or repairing the water filter. Women in general, chew much
less Qat than men, however, women in about 66-80% households have access to filtered
water as men, giving an indication of equity and a common understanding of the importance
of drinking filtered water by all family members.
Table 3.11: Place and purpose of drinking filtered water, after 3 months, in 3 selected villages
39
Village
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
%
In-door
80
80
39
Out-door
50
40
27.7
Men during Qat sessions
40
50
39
* Women
80
80
66.7
Drinking filtered water
*Women drinking filtered water (in equity) as men.
After 6 months of filter distribution and usage, it was observed that filtered water is almost
used for drinking purposes only in 90.9% and 60.7% of households in Yelaan and Sawaan,
respectively (table 3.12). The high percentage of filtered water used for “drinking only” in
Yelaan might be referred to the fact that its source is more turbid (abou16 NTU) leading to
longer filtration time, in addition to its higher family size (77.8% between 5 -10 members)
than in Sawaan as in table 3.3.
Table 3.12: Use of filtered water after 6 months in Yelaan and Sawaan villages
Village
Use of filtered water
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
Cooking + Drinking
39.2
13.6
Drinking only
60.7
90.9
3.2.2 Health Impact
After 3 and 6 months of water filters used it is observed that there is a sharp decrease in the
diarrhoeal frequency in all villages as shown in figure 3.4. In Sawaan, diarrhoeal incidences
have decreased from 78.6% before using silver filters (SFs) to 10% after 3 months from using
SFs, where in Yelaan they have decreased from 100 % to 20%. This is a very good
improvement in health as a result of filters use and awareness. However, these incidences
40
increased to a small extent after 6 months to 14.2% in Sawaan and 45.4% in Yelaan. In AlDahabishah, the diarrhoeal frequency decreased from 86.6% before using candle filters (CFs)
to 50% after 3 months of using CFs. However, after 6 months the efficiency of filters was not
evaluated in Al-Dahabishah. Being said that the decrease in Al-Dahabishah is less than in
other villages could be referred to the improper handling of candle filters and/or using
contaminated jerry cans for storing cool water (hotter climate).
The decrease in diarrhoeal incidences after 3 months in all villages might be an indication of
proper filter handling and the increase in awareness about the importance of health among
households. The diarrhoea in Yelaan and Sawaan after 6 months more than after 3 months,
might be an indication of improper collection, cleaning and storage of filtered water, in other
words, this could be attributed to insufficient awareness on proper handling of filters or jerry
cans. Cleaning of water filters and jerry cans might have become an additional routine work
on the burden of women leading to carelessness. Another reason for the increase in diarrhoeal
incidences, particularly in Yelaan could be the rainy season, which flashes down wastes to
open water sources causing more contamination by faecal coliform. Figure 3.4 showed
Positive (occurrence) frequency of diarrhoeal incidence in the villages
41
Figure 3.4: Frequency of diarrhoeal incidence among respondents in the villages
Table 3.13 with figure 3.4 shows a reduction in diarrhoeal diseases after water filters used.
From questioners before water filters used, Only children under 5 years, who had diarrhoea
were questioned, others were not asked, so it indicates that the infected group by diarrhoea
were children under 5 years age, Sawaan 78.6%, Yelaan 100% and Al-Dahabishah 86.6%,
respectively.
After 3 months of using water filters, diarrhoeal diseases were reduced. Households who had
diarrhoeal diseases, that 10% in Sawaan (all of the infected were children 100% under 5 years
old) and in Yelaan 20% had diarrhoea, out of them 50% children under 5 years old and 50%
children up to 18 years old. In Al-Dahabishah 50% had diarrhoea, out of 89% were children
under 5 years old and 11% children up to 18 years old. However, after 6 months of using
water filters, 14.2% in Sawaan and 45.4% in Yelaan were infected with diarrhoea. Out of
75.3% were in Sawaan and 80% in Yelaan from infected households with diarrhoeal
frequencies were children under 5 years old. However, 24.6% in Sawaan and 20% in Yelaan
were children from 5 to 18 years old. Adult whose ages are above 18 years didn't suffer any
more from diarrhoea in all villages.
It is clear that water filters reduced diarrhoeal disease, but most the infected were children
under 5 years old. The main reason for diarrhoea in children is mostly faecal coliform from
drinking water. Children are mostly the category of higher risk for diseases as their immunity
in general is not stabilized as that of adults. There might be other risk factors playing a role
herein than contamination of drinking water as playing in an unhealthy environment. See
figure 3.4 and table 3.13.
Table 3.13: Percentage of diarrhoeal occurrences according to age before and after
using water filters for 3 and 6 months, in 3 selected villages
42
Diarrhoeal
Before filter use
3 months after filter use
occurrence
according to
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
78.6
5- 18 years old
Adult
age
Under 5 years
old
Al-
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
%
100
86.6
100
--
--
--
--
--
--
Dahabishah
Al-
6 months after
filter use
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
%
50
89
75.3
80
0
50
11
24.6
20
0
0
0
0
0
Dahabishah
After 3 months of filters use and construction of the new water system, more than 76% of
households in all villages have experienced improvement in general health(water borne
diseases reduced) and saving money (less medical treatment expenses) and time (less time
used for water collection), see table 3.14 and figure 3.4. This improvement indicates a
positive and successful impact of both interventions.
Table 3.14: Improvement in household’s health, economy and time saving after 3
months of implementing the water project
Village
Improvement
Total
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
%
%
Health
80
90
72.2
78.9
Money saving
80
70
77.8
76.3
Time saving
70
90
72.2
76.3
Eighty percent of households in Yelaan stated that the reason of health improvement (reduced
water borne diseases) was due to the use of water filters as the water from the source is highly
turbid and contaminated (table 3.15). In Sawaan and Al-Dahabishah, 80% and 50% of
households, respectively, believe that the health improvement is referred to both, the use of
43
filters and the newly constructed water net system. The water network (storage and pipelines)
keep drinking water unexposed to contamination and the filters kill bacteria. In Sawaan,
nobody believes that filters only contribute to the improvement in health because their water
source is relatively clean.
Table 3.15: Main reasons for health improvement after 3 months of project
implementation in 3 selected villages
Village
Reason for health
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
Total
improvement
%
%
%
%
Water net system only
20
10
22.2
1 8.4
Filters only
0
80
27.8
34.2
Both
80
10
50
47.3
3.2.3 Impact on Education
As mentioned earlier, women and girls have saved time by installing the water net system.
The water net system (water storage and pipelines) became close to villages so that after 6
months 71.4% of respondents in Sawaan and 90.9% in Yelaan, respectively agreed to enrol
their children (girls) at schools and women may join literacy classes. However, 21.4%
respondents in Sawaan and 4.5% in Yelaan did not change their attitude towards the
importance of girls education. It is most likely that women and girls should conduct other
activities to improve the income of the family. The health and socio-economy of households
in my opinion will improve as a consequence of improved girls and women education. It is
assumed that the next generation will accordingly get better education and the overall quality
of life will be improved.
Table 3.16: Attitude of respondents towards the enrolment of girls at schools after 6
months of project implementation in Yelaan and Sawaan villages
44
Village
Attitude towards
Total
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
%
Positive (yes)
71.4
90.9
80
Negative (no)
7.1
4.5
6
No change
21.4
4.5
14
girls education
3.2.4 Awareness Impact
After 3 months of project implementation, respondents seemed to be satisfied to an extent of
“GOOD” with the effectiveness of awareness campaigns (90% in Yelaan, 70% in Sawaan
and 66.7% in Al-Dahabishah), see table 3.17. A positive change of household’s attitude
towards hygiene, water borne diseases and water filters used was observed. However, the
positive effectiveness from awareness sessions decreased after 6 months as 25% and 41.1%
of respondents in Yelaan and Sawaan, respectively believed that awareness campaigns were
ineffective. Reasons mentioned were the unavailability of some households to attend these
sessions for being busy, the limited space of venue (small literacy classrooms) and in some
cases, women were not allowed to join men in the same classroom. Another reason for such
decrease in attendance could be the unattractive awareness material. Generally, only one
person per some household attended these sessions, some families never attended at all. This
indicates the need for more awareness sessions, involving members from all households.
Table 3.17: Effectiveness of awareness sessions after implementing water projects on
the percentage of households in the villages
Effectiveness
After 3 months
After 6 months
of awareness
% of households
% of households
sessions
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
Good
90
70
66.7
23.5
31.2
--
Weak
10
30
27.8
52.9
43.7
--
No effect
0
0
5.6
41.1
25
--
45
3.2.5 Socio-economic Impact
Medical treatment for diarrhoeal diseases costing up to 5000 YR were found in households of
20%, 40% and 22.2% for Sawaan, Yelaan and Al-Dahabishah, respectively, before
implementing the water projects. These expenses decreased to 7.1% in Sawaan and to 22.1%
in Yelaan after 6 months of filter use. However, expenses over 5000 YR decreased from 30%
to 22.7% households in Yelaan. The decrease in treatment costs is supported by the decrease
in diarrhoeal incidences in general. Respondents said that they have saved money due to less
diarrhoeal treatment as a result of using the new water pipelines network and water filters in
the villages which improving their socio-economic status. Being said that households of 85.7
% in Sawaan and 54.5 % in Yelaan did not spend any money for treatment, is not necessarily
an indication of the decrease in diarrhoea, but might be the attitude towards unnecessarily
spending money for treatment, were traditional household treatment might help.
Table 3.18: Incidence of spending money on treatment of diarrhoeal diseases, before filters
distribution and after 6 months of used water filters in the villages
Cost of
diarrhoeal
treatment
Before use water filters
6 months after use water filters
% of Households
% of Households
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
Sawaan
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
No cost
80
30
11.1
85.7
54.5
--
up to 5000 Y.R
20
40
22.2
7.1
22.7
--
>5000 Y.R
0
30
66.6
7.1
22.7
--
Table 3.19 shows that cleaning water filters is generally the responsibility of housewives. In
Sawaan and Yelaan, it was observed that “only women” were responsible for cleaning the
silver filter, while in Al-Dahabishah, men were involved in 5.6% of households in cleaning
the candle filters. An irregular cleaning of filters (when filters become dirty) was observed in
46
10%, 50% and 72.2% of households in Sawaan, Yelaan and Al-Dahabishah, respectively.
The frequent irregular cleaning of filters in Al-Dahabishah and Yelaan could be due to the
higher turbidity of water sources. However, in Sawaan, 90% of households clean filters
weekly, which could be an indication of the clean water source in Sawaan. It has to be
mentioned that a cleaning brush was provided with each silver filter, but not with candle
filters. The brush was used effectively to clean filters by 90% households in Yelaan and
100% in Sawaan to maintain the filtration rate. However, in Al-Dahabishah only 44.4%
households use a brush of their own (sometimes, they use a metal brush, which damages the
candle bar, see photo 3.1), 38.8% use the naked hand, while the rest use a sponge or a piece
of cloth to clean filters. In Yelaan and Sawaan, no one used naked hands or a piece of cloth to
clean filters. This might be referred to the effectiveness of awareness sessions about proper
handling, cleaning and maintaining the filters in addition to the distribution of a brush and the
importance of using it.
Table 3.19: Cleaning frequency of filter, responsibility and type of cleaning tools used
by households of 3 selected villages
Village
Cleaning water
Sawaan
filter
Yelaan
Silver filters
Al-Dahabishah
Total
Candle filters
%
%
%
%
0
0
5.6
2.6
100
100
94.4
97.4
Weekly
90
50
27.7
50
Monthly
0
0
0
0
Irregular
10
50
72.2
50
10
0
11.1
7.8
Responsible
Men
Women
Timing
Cleaning tools
Sponge
47
Clothe
0
0
5.6
2.6
By hand
0
0
38.8
18.4
Brush
90
100
44.4
71
It is observed (table 3.20) that 60% of households of each Yelaan and Sawaan and 50% of
Al-Dahabishah, filtered water meets the demand to drinking water. Large family size in all
villages might play an important role in the insufficient amount of filtered water, in addition
to the low flow rate and relative low capacity of filters, especially of candle filters. In
households with insufficient filtered water supply, family members still drink unfiltered
water. Refilling the filters twice a day in 61% of households in Al-Dahabishah indicates the
insufficient amount of filtered water, considering the small capacity of the CF bucket. In
Yelaan, 50% of households refill filter when it is totally empty of water because of turbid
water of source enforcing people to clean filters more often. In Sawaan, the majority of
households (60%) refill filters when it is half empty. It must be noted that many households
in Sawaan don't believe that the SFs kill bacteria efficiently, because they consider their
water source clean; people in some households keep drinking unfiltered water when filters
run out and containers are handled in an unhygienic way leading to their contamination.
Several awareness sessions were therefore held to explain and clarify how to use the filter
and containers properly.
Table 3.20: Sufficiency of filtered water and frequency of re-filling filters in 3 selected
villages
Village
Sufficiency and refilling
of water filters
Sawaan
Yelaan
Silver filters
%
Total
Candle filters
%
48
Al-Dahabishah
%
%
Amount of filtered water
sufficient
60
60
50
55.2
insufficient
40
40
50
44.7
When empty
30
50
16.6
28.9
Twice a day
10
20
61.1
36.8
When half empty
60
30
22.2
34.2
Re-filling the filter
Despite the great advantages of filters, people in the villages complain about some
disadvantages, which are summarized in table 3.21. Leaking of unfiltered water from the
upper bucket contaminating filtered water of the lower bucket due to broken ceramic candle
filter bars, tap leakage and low filter capacity (not sufficient for a family size of 5-10
members) are amongst the biggest problems faced in Yelaan and Al-Dahabishah. Fragile
candles are difficult to maintain (clean) according to 33.3% respondents in Al-Dahabishah
(photo 3.1). Additionally, people complain that candle filters keep filtered water warm in
summer. Filtered water is therefore transferred into other containers (jerry cans) to cool water
down, which may cause re-contamination with faecal coliform. In some cases clay is released
from the SF when cleaned causing an unacceptable water taste. As mentioned earlier, the
water source is more turbid in Yelaan, which affects flow rate; therefore, filters need to be
more frequently cleaned in order to increase the amount of filtered water. Despite all
disadvantages, a percentage of 40%, 20% and 5.5% of households in Sawaan, Yelaan and AlDahabishah, respectively don't face problems in handling filters.
Table 3.21: Problems and defects of water filters faced by users in 3 selected villages
Village
Problems
Sawaan
49
Yelaan
Al-Dahabishah
Silver filters
Candle filters
%
%
%
Tap leaking
20
40
5.5
Fragile filter
10
0
33.3
Dissolving of clay (Silver Filter)
20
10
--
Low capacity
10
30
55.5
No problem
40
20
5.5
Photo 3.1: A broken ceramic candle filter unit bar
The overall cost of the SF including both the plastic bucket and ceramic piece (pottery) was
3000 YR, while the pottery piece cost 1000YR in 2008. The willingness of households to buy
a new SF or spares, if their filter is partly or totally damaged lies at about 81.8% of household
in Yelaan and 64.3% in Sawaan, respectively, see table 3.22. This is a good inductor of
willing to sustain the use of water filters either to improve their health or to show up as a
prestigious status. The remaining households of 35.7% in Sawaan and 18% in Yelaan are not
willing to buy spare parts. The reasons behind the unwillingness are due to financial shortage
and for the unavailability of spare parts distribution shops. In addition, unwillingness could
be a matter of weak awareness of households about the importance of drinking clean potable
water to improve health.
50
Table 3.22: Willingness to buy spares of Silver Filter and reasons for unwillingness in
Yelaan and Sawaan villages
village
Consideration
Sawaan
Yelaan
%
%
Yes (positive)
64.3
81.8
No (negative)
35.7
18.1
Expensive
10
0
No money
80
100
No spare parts shop
20
75
Other reasons
10
0
Willingness
Reasons of unwillingness
3.2.6 The Role of Women on Water Management
Before implementing water projects, women and girls were responsible for collecting water,
nevertheless, they were not aware of the importance of water quality. After implementing the
water project and setting up of two Local Women Associations (LWAs) and two literacy
classes in the villages, many awareness sessions were conducted within 6 months for men
and women. The role of women was enhanced by raising their awareness on the importance
of water quality, education (literacy class), operating IGA (economic) and training in good
water management. Many women became able to read and write, knowledgeable in general
health, water quality, filters use, and became confident in operating IGAs and water project
management. Men also participated in awareness sessions, water testing and water project
supervisions. After that, men understood the importance of women’s role in managing water
quality, health and socioeconomic. Men also became familiar with importance of drinking
water quality; they participate along with women in water projects management. This
51
improves equity in gender in villages as part of IWRM to improve health and socioeconomic
households which will improve the quality of life (CARE, June2008)& (www.reflectaction.org) (Bulletin-52, 2008).
Photo 3.2: Training women on water testing in the village
Photo 3.3: Training men on water testing in the villages
52
3.2.7 Water Quality Impact
3.2.7.1 Physico-Chemical Water Quality Parameters Analysis
All tested water samples in the villages were colorless and odorless according to WHO and
Yemeni drinking water quality guidelines, refer to annex- c. The turbidity of all water
samples was less than 5 NTU and therefore in the acceptable range of WHO and Yemeni
drinking water quality standards except the water source of Yelaan, which showed a value of
16 to 17 NTU for the reason of being uncovered so that water flows through soil and rocks
and one household sample in Yelaan with a value of 9 NTU. Almost all tested water samples
show pH values ranging between 6.5 and 8.5 indicating an acceptable range according to
Yemen and WHO drinking water quality standards. One exception was observed at a
household of Yelaan ( pH=9 before filtration), which might be referred to the contamination
of water or container (jerry can)used for water collection. Higher pH values can change the
taste of drinking water, giving it a soapy feel.
3.2.7.2 Microbiological Water Quality Parameters Analysis
A. Yelaan
As mentioned earlier, all tested water samples for Bacteria (faecal coliform) showed high
contamination 100% with faecal coliform (E. coli) before implementing the water project
(first test). However, filtered water of Yelaan in field and in laboratory was almost free of
faecal coliforms (E. coli ), after water filters used in 1, 3 and 6 months (100%, 53% and
90%) from filtered water samples were clean from E. coli. The absence of E. coli in filtered
water indicates the effectiveness of the SF in killing E. coli and the improvement of water
quality, in addition to effective awareness campaigns. However, after 3 months of filter use
results showed some households (drinking water) have contamination with low risk during
field and lab analysis. This contamination might be referred to improper handling of filtered
water, or improper cleaning of water filters and store filtered water in contamination jerry
53
cans. A bacterial count of 0 = conformity clean, 1-10 indicates a low health risk, 11-100
indicates a medium risk, 101-1000 = high risk and a count over 1000 is of very high risk
according to WHO guidelines for safe drinking water. It is to be considered that samples
results in lab test (CNPHL) with values less than 2 are not contaminated = 0 (NCPHL as
reference), see table 3.23 and Annex B.
Test
Table 3.23: Microbiological water analysis for faecal coliforms in Yelaan
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
Before silver water
filters use
after 1 month of filters
use
after 3 months of filters
use
after 6 months of filters
use
No.
sample
sample
No.
Bacteria
sample
No.
Bacteria
sample
No.
Bacteria
Bacteria%
Lab test
Field test
Bacteria
S1
TNTC
B1
TNTC
A1
0
ST1
TNTC
B2
TNTC
B2
TNTC
A2
0
S2
96
B3
TNTC
B3
67
A3
0
A3
1
B4
TNTC
B4
35
A4
0
A4
0
B5
1
A5
0
A5
5
A5
0
B6
1
A6
0
A6
1
A6
0
B7
50
A7
0
A7
1
A7
0
B8
60
A8
0
A8
9
AC 8
0
B9
38
-
-
AC9
TNTC
-
-
B10
6
A9
0
A10
0
A9
0
B11
4
A10
0
A11
0
A10
0
B12
12
A11
0
A12
0
A11
0
B13
9
A12
0
A13
17
A12
0
S14
13
-
-
-
-
-
-
Clean%
0%
100%
53%
90%
Contami
nation%
100%
0%
47%
10%
54
No = number, S = water source, ST= water storage, B and A are household samples Before and After filtration.
AC= household sample taken from storage container (jerry cans) after filtration.
TNTC= too numerous to count. In Lab test bacteria < 2 states the absence of bacteria=0.
Photo 3.4: Discussion on biological water testing results in Yelaan and Sawaan
B. Sawaan
Water testing in the field and NCPHL before the use of water filters (test 1) showed that 83%
of samples were contaminated with Bacteria (E. coli). Table 3.24 shows that before
implementing the water project the water source in Sawaan (S1) and one household sample
were not contaminated with faecal coliform (17% clean), while tested in the field. This
indicates a better water quality in Sawaan water source over the water sources of Yelaan and
Al-Dahabishah as in Sawaan water drips out of two rocks and is collected in a small basin. It
also shows clearly that some households handle water properly during fetching or storage in
jerry cans as data show no contamination before filtration. However, water samples taken
from constructed water storage and households showed contamination before filtration. After
use water filters, after one month most filtered water samples were free of E. coli, (test 2
55
about 7 out of 8 samples 88% clean. After 3 months (test 3) about 8 out of 9 samples 89%
clean and after 6 months (test 4) about 7 out of 11 samples 64% clean. The rest tested
samples were contaminated. Contamination samples might be referred either to improper
water transfer, mostly contaminated storage containers (jerry cans) used for water cooling, or
due to improper cleaning of water filters.
Bacteria%
Lab test
Field test
Test
Table 3.24: Microbiological Analysis of faecal coliforms on water samples for Sawaan village
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
before silver water
filters use
after 1 month of
filters use
after 3 months of
filters use
after 6 months of
filters use
sample
No.
Bacteria
sample
No.
Bacteria
sample
No.
Bacteria
sample
No.
Bacteria
S1
0
B1
0
ST1
4
ST1
9
B2
11
B2
23
A2
1
A2
0
B3
60
B3
18
A3
0
A3
0
B4
0
B4
6
A4
0
A4
0
B5
4
A5
0
A5
0
A5
1
B6
1
A6
0
A6
0
AC6
31
B7
1
A7
0
-
-
AC7
15
-
-
A8
0
-
-
AC8
9
B8
11
A9
0
A7
0
A9
0
B9
6
A10
0
A8
0
A10
0
B 10
14
A11
0
A9
0
A11
0
B 11
27
A12
4
A10
0
A12
0
B 12
17
-
-
-
-
-
-
Clean%
17%
88%
89%
64%
Contami
nation%
83%
12%
11%
36%
56
No = number, S = water source, ST= water storage, B and A are household samples Before and After
filtration, respectively. AC = household sample taken from storage container (jerry cans) after filtration.
TNTC= too numerous to count. In Lab test bacteria < 2 states the absence of bacteria= 0.
C. Al-Dahabishah
Table 3.25. Show that all samples taken from the water source, water net system and some
households before filter distribution were 100% ( low risk) with faecal coliform indicating
poor water quality. It is worth mentioning that contamination of the water source (open
manual water well) and water net was very low risk and creates a major question; from where
does contamination in households come. The most probable answer could be that containers
used to transfer water from the water net to households were highly contaminated and not
well cleaned. After the use of water filters, the results showed that 9 out of 15 samples (60%)
were clean or free of Bacteria (E. coli). However, 40% of households showed contamination
with faecal coliforms representing a relative higher percentage than others villages. The
reasons for contamination could be due to the improper way of cleaning filters (more difficult
to clean candle filters) and the use of contaminated jerry cans for storing and cooling filtered
water. In addition, results indicated that awareness among households was not sufficient to
improve handling of water properly, storage of drinking water and cleaning water filters
properly. It was noted that candle filters were not provided with cleaning procedures and
cleaning brush.
57
Table 3.25: Microbiological analysis of faecal coliforms on water samples of Al-Dahabishah village
Field test
Test
Bacteria%
Before Candle filters use
After 6 months of Candle filters use
Sample
No. Bacteria
Sample
No. Bacteria
S1
1
AC1
4
B2
26
A2
5
B3
11
A3
2
B4
30
A4
5
B5
16
AC5
70
B6
7
A6
2
B7
6
A7
0
B8
14
A8
0
B9
TNTC
A9
0
WN10
2
A10
0
-
-
A11
0
-
-
A12
0
-
-
A13
0
-
-
A14
0
-
-
A15
0
Clean%
0%
60%
Contamination%
100%
40%
No = number, S = water source, WN = water net, B and A are household samples Before and After filtration.
AC = household sample taken from storage container (jerry cans) after filtration.
TNTC = too numerous to count.
58
Photo 3.5: Discussion on biological water testing results in Al-Dahabishah village
3.3 Comparing Silver Filters with Candle Filters
The health and socio-economic impact study for both filter types might give us an indication
of which filter is more suitable to rural Yemeni society through comparing Silver filters (SFs)
with Candle filters (CFs) in terms of killing bacteria, capacity, easiness of cleaning, fragility,
price and affordability, refer to table 3.26. It showed that SFs is more effective in killing
bacteria than CFs in the villages. Table of the questionnaires showed another advantage of
the SF,(capacity is larger than CF). According to the survey, CF has to be filled more often
than the SF. In other words, sufficiency of filtered water per a medium sized family was
insufficient, which might again lead to drinking unclean water. It must be mentioned that
other factors play an important role in filtered water sufficiency as the climate, family size,
and turbidity of water source. In Al-Dhabishah, climate is warm, and family size is larger
than other villages, therefore, more drinking water is needed. Considering the above, more
than a filter or a larger filter size (plastic bucket) is required. It is much easier to clean SF
59
than CF since the ceramic bucket consists of one piece only. The pottery can easily be taken
out of the plastic bucket, though it is much heavier than the CF bars. However, CF candle bar
has to be taken off and affixed again for cleaning purpose. Therefore, such bar can easily be
damaged and may allow contaminated water to flow without filtration, thus keeping drinking
water contaminated. The proper use and cleaning of water filters therefore play a major role
in water treatment and accordingly, improving the health. The shape and thickness of the SF
enhances filter stability, contrary to the CF, which is more fragile as candle bar. The study
showed that CFs are more often broken than SFs.
It is to be noted that SFs keep water cool better than CFs; having said that, SFs would
therefore be very suitable for warm climates as in Al-Dahabishah. The CFs and SFs were
distributed for free to every household in the villages. A new CF is cheaper it cost about 7001000 YR, including plastic bucket and the ceramic bar, while SF cost about 2800-3000YR,
including plastic bucket and the ceramic piece (pottery). The pottery only cost 1000YR (in
2008), which makes the CF more affordable for low income population in the villages (most
people are self-employed in agriculture, and similarly, people in Al-Dahabishah are poorer
than other villages).
Table 3.26: Comparing Silver Filters with Candle Filters
Village
Sawaan
Yelaan
AlDahabishah
Filter
type
SF
SF
CF
Ease of
Fragility
cleaning
Very good
Easy
Fragile
Very good
Easy
Fragile
Less
Very
Good
Insufficient
easy
fragile
* Size of medium family from field survey = 5-10 members.
Kills bacteria
Capacity for
medium family*
Sufficient
Partially sufficient
Price
Acceptable
Acceptable
More acceptable
(cheaper)
3.4 Sustainability of Water Projects
Projects sustainability means the continuity of water projects and its related improvement
within IWRM. This can be done by good governance of IGAs in terms of maintaining water
systems (water sources, water storages and pipelines) by the management staff (women).
60
Such sustainability will lead to a continuous improvement in water quantity, quality, health
(reduce water borne diseases), save time, money, women education, awareness, and improve
socioeconomic of households accordingly. LWAs are lead by empowered women, who are
able to use and manage the income generating revenue to sustain the projects. The said
revenue covers maintenance of the water net system, electric generator, water pump and
finally management and sustainability of IGAs and literacy classes. According to projects
sustainability objectives, projects succeeded and sustained during the period of study with
IRM. However, after more than a year from implementing the water projects and according to
my own observation, project sustainability faced many challenges. IGA in Yelaan and
Sawaan, in addition to, literacy classes in all villages were stopped. The reasons are mostly
due to mismanagement and conflicts between householders for the selection of the
management staff. Additionally, no monitoring or supervision was performed by the
government or any other related institution. Furthermore, there is a lack of awareness on the
importance of good water governance by inhabitants, besides that staff have weak
management skill, particularly among women, and the lack of conduct to monitor and
evaluate such projects.
In general, after implementing water projects, both water quality and quantity have improved
through construction of water storages, water pipelines, providing water filters to every
household and constructed drainage basin to collect disposal water. The water project
components were adequately implemented with IWRM, so such components require
minimum maintenance only. The study shows a relatively high willingness of households to
buy new filters or spare parts in case of any damage ensuring sustainability.
61
4 Conclusions and Recommendations
4.1 Conclusions
-
After implementing water projects in all villages, the water quantity became double in
water storages.
-
The water quality has improved as a result of using water filters and access to clean
drinking water became possible for all households in the villages (equity).
-
Diarrhoeal diseases (faecal coliform) have highly reduced, which approved
effectiveness of filters.
-
Some drinking water contamination was still observed on household level due to
inappropriate way of cleaning and using filters, also storing filtered water in jerry can
causing recontamination.
-
Silver filters (SFs) showed more efficiency over candle filters considering the
easiness of handling SFs.
-
The socioeconomic of population has improved as treatment expenses reduced.
-
Time for water collection has been reduced. As a result, women and girls are save
time and able to join schools and literacy classes.
-
The population became aware about the impact of water quality on health and
consequently the socioeconomic of households.
-
Water became valuable (have price) in Al-Dahabishah and Sawaan). However, water
is still free of charge in Yelaan.
-
The water projects have created permanent or part time jobs, such as worker in
pottery manufacture in Sana’a, literacy classes teachers, income generating activities
(IGAs) operators and selling points of filters.
62
-
Women managing IGAs and use their revenues to operate IGAs, literacy classes,
maintain water systems in order to sustain water projects. Men understand the
important role played by women in water management.
-
The government does not intervene in rural water projects in the studied areas. CARE
International Organization in Yemen (CARE), Social Fund for Development and GTZ
are the only entities with direct interventions.
-
Sustainability is only partly given. The willingness of buying spare parts for filters
was observed. Mismanagement of income generating activities (IGAs), which might
be due to the lack of management skills among women, which lead to the closure of
the IGAs. It is to be noted that, the social (marriage of female teacher) lead to the
closure of the literacy class after the movement of the female teacher to another
village.
-
The concept of integrated water resource management (IWRM) has been partly
implemented due to lack of legal and institutional frameworks.
4.2 Recommendations
-
More research is recommended in future for implementing integrated water resource
management in water projects for more improvement in water management.
-
The sustainability of projects in general should be addressed, taken into consideration
integrated water resource management (IWRM) aspects.
-
It is highly recommended to use Sliver Filters in rural and urban areas where water
contamination is still wide spread.
-
The cost of filters should be kept at low level to keep the accessibility to clean
drinking water for poor people.
-
In hot climatic zones, plastic filter buckets are not suitable, as such, it is
recommended to use especial material to keep water cool.
63
-
Water storages need regular cleaning to reduce contamination and water sources
should be kept covered.
-
Collecting disposal (waste water) in drainage basins close to water storages is
recommended to expand agricultural area, which will improve family’s income.
-
Rooftop rainwater harvesting might be a technique to be introduced in the rural areas.
-
Awareness sessions should carry out periodically to ensure effective water
management.
-
Men and women should be provided with specific skills, in particular, operational and
financial management for better water management.
-
The sustainability of water projects should be of first priority in the designing process
of projects.
-
The participatory approach in the whole project cycle should be strengthened to
ensure success of the project.
-
Cooperation and communication between relevant government institutions such as the
water and health sectors, non- government organizations (NGOs) and households in
the villages is recommended to address some water problems, improve and sustain
water projects.
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