Psychology 023 Final Review
Final Exam
• Thursday April 15, 2004
• 2-5 pm
• AH Gym
• I am leaving for a weekend conference that
evening so grades will not be posted until
Monday. Check the web on Monday.
Format
•
•
•
•
up to 100 multiple choice questions
up to 3 hours
30% of course grade
all material from Winter semester
– approx. 60% on material from Mar 9-Apr 6
– approx 20% on material from Jan 6-27
– approx 20% on material from Feb 30-Mar 2
• questions will be less detailed for first two
thirds
Homeostatis
• homo (equal) + stasis (state)
• body’s maintenance of a constant state
– e.g., body temperature, blood glucose, salts in bodily fluids,
sympathetic vs. parasympathetic NS
• analogy: thermostat
• set point = optimal level
Too little
Just
right
Too much
Stable internal state
Too little
Just
right
Too much
Deviation produces a drive
e.g., too little food  hunger
Too little
Just
right
Too much
Drive gives motivation to restore
homeostasis
e.g., hunger  eating  satiation
Eat
Increase in
blood glucose
above set point
Accumulation
of body fat above
set point
Inhibit LH
Excite VMH
Hunger
Satiety
Excite LH
Inhibit VMH
Decrease in
blood glucose
below set point
Decrease
in body fat below
set point
Stop
Eating
Study this on your own
Peter Gray FQ 6-10
esp. Fig. 6.4
Tuesday’s “Test Yourself” question
will be based on the various factors
that control hunger
1.
2.
3.
Which body for your sex would be your ideal?
Which body would the opposite sex find most attractive?
Which body is most typical the modern average in our society?
Arousal
• Imagine you’re writing an exam of average difficulty.
How well would you do if you were
– really mellow or drowsy
– average
– really stressed (or hooped on chocolate-covered espresso
beans)?
QUALITY OF
PERFORMANCE
Low
Medium
High
LEVEL OF AROUSAL
Yerkes-Dodson Curve
Yerkes & Dodson (1908)
• rats did best if:
– the task was easy and they were highly aroused (by strong shocks)
– the task was moderately difficult and they were moderately aroused (by
moderate shocks)
– the task was difficult and they were weakly aroused (by weak shocks)
Theories of Emotion
1. Common Sense Theory
Theories of Emotion
2. James-Lange
“…we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because
we tremble, and not that we cry, strike or tremble because we are sorry,
angry or fearful.”
-- William James
Theories of Emotion
3. Cannon-Bard Theory
Theories of Emotion
4. Schachter’s Attribution Theory
Cognitive appraisal = TYPE of Emotion
Degree of Arousal = INTENSITY of Emotion
This figure is simpler than Fig. 6.24 (which you can ignore) in your text
Desynchronized Cycles
Sleep Waves
• different waves
characterize different
stages
• awake, REM sleep
– irregular high frequency
waves indicate
unsynchronized activity
• middle stages
– weird blips like spindles
and K-complexes
• deep sleep
– low frequency waves
(e.g., delta waves in
Stage 4) indicate
synchronized activity
Progression through the stages
Things to note:
• progress from Stage 1 to 4 then back up and into REM
• first REM period after ~90 minutes (if not sleep-deprived) and
~every 90 minutes thereafter
• spend more time in deep stages in early evening, more time in
light stages towards morning
– REM periods typically get longer as evening progresses
How Can We Measure Intelligence?
IQ scores follow a bell curve
(normal) distribution (Gray p. A-7)
Number of Scores
• Average IQs
• high school graduate: ~105
• University (Bachelor’s)
graduate: ~115
• Advanced professional degree
graduate: ~125
0.1% 2%
Z-Score
IQ Scores
13.5%
34%
34%
13.5%
0.1%
2%
-3SD
-2SD
-1SD
0
+1SD
+2SD
+3SD
55
70
85
100
115
130
145
Retarded
Gifted
Dull
Average
Bright
Borderline
Superior
The mean is 100
IQ scores can be used to classify intelligence
The standard
deviation is 15
Factor Analysis
CORRELATION
How much do you
like Dr. Pepper?
r = .70
How much do you like Coke Classic?
CORRELATION MATRIX
Coke
Classic
Dr.
Pepper
7-UP
Ginger
Ale
Coke
Classic
Dr.
Pepper
Coke
Classic
---
.70
.65
.75
Dr.
Pepper
---
---
.59
7-UP
---
---
Ginger
Ale
---
---
7-UP
Ginger
Ale
Coke
Classic
---
.70
.20
.33
.51
Dr.
Pepper
---
---
.16
.18
---
.68
7-UP
---
---
---
.77
---
---
Ginger
Ale
---
---
---
---
Is IQ hereditary?
Assembling Sounds
Sounds  phonemes  morphemes  words  sentences  meaning
•
•
•
hard to identify word transitions in speech
speech recognition systems require slow, paused speech
misunderstandings
–
–
–
–
mondegreens
“It’s a doggy-dog world”
“Our father wishart in heaven; Harold be thy name”
Jimi Hendrix
• “’scuse me while I kiss this guy”
– Red Hot Chili Peppers
• “Wait for the shed; it’s a lonely view”?
– Flight 301 “hijack”
Broca’s Area
Wernicke’s aphasia
– occurs with left hemisphere damage
– problems with language comprehension
– fluent nonsense
visual cortex
auditory cortex
Wernicke’s
area
Broca’s
area
motor
cortex
(language
comprehension)
(language
generation)
(mouth, lips
tongue)
Evolution of Language?
One theory (Giacomo Rizzolatti)
•
through evolution, a brain area in left
frontal cortex (F5 in monkey; Broca’s
in human) becomes specialized for:
1.
2.
3.
4.
mirror neurons
• “monkey see, monkey do”
own hand actions’
others hand actions
others’ gestures
others’ verbal communication
How do we learn grammar?
B. F. Skinner
Noam Chomsky
• language and grammar are learned
through operant conditioning
• there is an innate language module or
instinct -- Language Acquisition Device
(LAD)
• there are too many combinations to
learn
• kids say things they’ve never heard
adults say, e.g., “I gived it to her”
• people can determine whether novel
nonsense is grammatical, e.g., “Colorless
green ideas sleep furiously”
Orienting and Habituation
• Orienting reflex
– humans, including infants, pay more attention to
novel than familiar stimuli
• Habituation
– infants get bored with repeated presentations of
the same thing
• Habituation paradigm
– repeat the same stimulus over and over again,
then change it slightly
– does infant spend more time looking at new
stimulus?
Habituation Paradigm
Baby looks at one
stimulus for several
minutes… baby
habituates…gets bored
with that stimulus
Then baby is shown
two stimuli, the original
and a new one.
If baby looks more at new
stimulus --> conclude baby
can tell the difference.
If baby looks equally at two
stimuli --> conclude baby
cannot tell the difference
Jean Piaget
• sensorimotor
– develops object
permanence partway
through
• preoperational
– egocentric
– no conservation
• concrete operational
Jean Piaget
1896-1980
– can take others’
perspectives
– conservation
• formal operational
– can think abstractly and
hypothetically
Why are human brains so big?
• Normal children do well
with both the other person
(false belief) and the
camera (false picture)
• Autistic children to worse
with the other person and
better with the camera
The Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism
“The autistic personality is an extreme variant of male intelligence.” -- Hans Asperger, 1944
“The male brain is defined… as those individuals in whom systemising is significantly better than empathising,
and the female brain is defined as the opposite cognitive profile.” -- Simon Baron-Cohen, 2002
Williams
Syndrome???
Asperger’s
(high functioning autism)
Females
Males
Better at
understanding
people than things
Autistics
Better at
understanding
things than people
Williams Syndrome
• genetic disorder
• 1/20,000 births
• mirror image of autism?
• mild retardation
• pixie-like faces
• very sociable, endearing
personalities
• expressive language
skills, poor spatial skills
• equal in males and
females
Autism
• strongly heritable
condition
• 1/200 children in “autism
spectrum”
• more common in males
than females (10:1)
• some brain abnormalities
(esp. amygdala)
Harlow’s Attachment Studies
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson
1902-1989
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
trust vs. mistrust
autonomy vs. self-doubt
initiative vs. guilt
industry vs. inferiority
identity vs. role confusion
intimacy vs. isolation
generativity vs. stagnation
ego integrity vs. despair
Attribution
Attribution
• the process by which people infer the causes of other
people’s behavior
• Example: Why did your boss yell at your co-worker?
– co-worker was slacking off and deserved it?
– boss is always a hothead?
– boss is usually easygoing but is undergoing a divorce that has her
stressed out?
– boss really needed this particular job to be done right because her
job is on the line
External factors
• people, events, situation, environment
Internal Factors
• traits, needs, intentions
Consider an Example
Kelley’s 3 questions in making an attribution
• does this person regularly behave this way in this situation?
• do others regularly behave this way in this situation?
• does this person behave this way in many other situations?
Actor-Observer Discrepancy
• I did it because of the situation; You did it because
of your personality
• e.g., “I did poorly on the exam because I had a
heavy exam schedule and I’d been sick and I was
really stressed out and my goldfish died that
morning and…. He did poorly on the exam
because he’s stupid and lazy.”
• can be influenced by point of view
– see self on videotape   personality attribution
– see videotape from other’s POV   situation attribution
Cognitive Dissonance
•
•
•
•
•
attitudes must be consistent with behavior
if they are not, people experience discomfort
must either change behavior or change attitude
usually it’s easier to change the attitude
Example
– Stephan is a neurologist and knows that smoking is a
serious health risk
– Stephan smokes
– Stephan must either:
1. stop smoking
2. change his attitudes
– “The risks are exaggerated.”
– “I’m going to die from something anyway.”
– “Smoking reduces the risk of Alzheimer’s disease.”
Insufficient Justification Effect
• If people cannot justify their behavior, they’re likely
to change their beliefs about it
• Experiment (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959)
– gave subjects a boring task
– asked subjects to lie to the next subject and say the
experiment was exciting
– paid ½ the subjects $1, other ½ $20
– then asked subjects to rate boringness of task
– $1 group rated the task as far more fun than the $20
group
– each group needed a justification for lying
• $20 group had an external justification of money
• since $1 isn’t very much money, $1 group said task was fun
Discrimination vs. Prejudice
No Prejudice
No relevant behaviors
A restaurant owner who
is bigoted against Jews
treats them fairly
because she needs
their business
An executive with
favorable views toward
Hispanics doesn’t hire
them because he would
get in trouble with his
boss
A professor who is
hostile toward women
grades his female
students unfairly
No Discrimination
Discrimination
Prejudice
• Discrimination
– unfair treatment of a group
• Prejudice
– negative attitudes toward or beliefs (stereotypes) about members of
a group
Origins of Prejudice
• Social Categorization
– “us vs. them”
• In-group
– one’s own group (e.g., UWO students)
• Out-group
– group outside one’s own group (e.g., Fanshawe students)
• In-group bias
– evaluation of one’s own group as better than others
– can lead to racism, sexism, prejudice, discrimination
• Out-group homogeneity bias
– members of out-groups are viewed as more similar to one another
than are members of in-group
– “We are diverse; They are all alike.”
– white Americans see Hispanics as all alike; Mexican Americans see
themselves as different from the other types of Hispanics who they
see as all alike (Cuban-Americans, Puerto-Rican Americans)
– stereotypes
Logic of IAT
slower
Reaction
Time
(ms)
Bias in favor of white
faster
White +
Good,
Black +
Bad
White +
Bad,
Black +
Good
Asch’s Line Judgment Experiment
• On average, subjects conformed on ~40% of trials
• 26% of subjects never conformed
• 28% conformed on more than half the trials
• Conformity dropped to ¼ of its peak if one other person dissented (even
when the dissenter made an inaccurate judgment)
• Conformity dropped dramatically when subjects recorded their responses
privately (so actually it was compliance -- yielding to public pressure without
changing private views)
Why Don’t People Help?
•
•
•
•
ambiguity
risks to self
anonymity
diffusion of responsibility
Social Impact Theory
Convergence of social forces
Diffusion of social impact
Are the people who commit such acts inherently
evil?
Adolf Eichmann
• supervised the deportation
of 6,000,000 Jews to Nazi
gas chambers
• Were Germans generally
evil?
• Was Eichmann an evil
sadist or merely a cog in
the wheel?
• How would you have
behaved in his situation?
We do what we’re told
“We do what we’re told.
We do what we’re told.
We do what we’re told.
Told to do.”
-- lyrics to “Milgram’s 37” by
Peter Gabriel
Psychologists’ predictions
(Milgram, 1974)
Hubs
Hysteria
• psychogenic: due to an unknown
psychological cause rather than a
physiological cause
• originally thought to be only
females (hystera = womb)
• symptoms
– paralysis of some body part or loss
of one of the senses with no
apparent physiological cause
• could be treated with hypnosis
– suggests psychological cause
• Freud and Josef Breuer studied
hysteria and wrote Studies of
Hysteria together
• now known as conversion
disorder
glove anesthesia
Structures of the Mind
• conscious
• preconscious
• unconscious
Psychosexual Stages of Development
•
•
psycho: the mind
sexual: physical pleasure more generally
•
five stages of development
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
•
oral stage
anal stage
phallic stage
latent stage
genital stage
people may become fixated at a particular
stage of development
The BIG Five
OPENNESS
Openness
Imaginative
Independent
Curious
Broad interests
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
Non-openness
Unimaginative
Conforming
Incurious
Narrow interests
Conscientiousness
Careful
Reliable
Persevering
Ambitious
EXTROVERSION
Extroversion
Sociable
Fun-loving
Talkative
Spontaneous
Undirectedness
Careless
Undependable
Lax
Aimless
AGREEABLENESS
Introversion
Reserved
Sober
Quiet
Self-controlled
Agreeableness
Courteous
Selfless
Trusting
Cooperative
Antagonism
Rude
Selfish
Suspicious
Uncooperative
NEUROTICISM
Neuroticism
Worrying
Vulnerable
Self-pitying
Impatient
Stability
Calm
Hardy
Self-satisfied
Patient
Mnemonic:
OCEAN
Extroverts vs. Introverts
Baseline arousal for extroverts
Baseline arousal for introverts
QUALITY OF
PERFORMANCE
Extroverts seek more external
arousal
Low
Introverts seek less external
arousal
Medium
LEVEL OF AROUSAL
High
(Hans Eysenck, 1967)
Investment Strategies
Nortel
bonds
tech
stocks
Canadian
stocks
Air
Canada
Martha
Stewart
Inc.
global
stocks
Smart Strategy:
Diversified Portfolio
Dumb Strategy:
Single Investment
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow
1908 - 1970
• Once basic needs have been
satisfied, people seek
psychological needs and growth
What is “Normal”?
Normality is the average of deviance.
-- Rita Mae Brown
Sanity is making your pathology work for you rather than against you.
--Anonymous
Estimates of lifetime
prevalence of mental
disorders: ~30-50%
of population for both
males and females
Is abnormality
normal?!
The Modern Psychiatric Bible
• Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of the American
Psychiatric Association
•
•
•
•
•
began in 1952
currently in fourth edition (1994)
fifth edition is in the works for
2010 release
dominant classification system
for mental disorders throughout
the world
more recent editions place
emphasis on criteria for
diagnosis and on research
results
Diathesis-Stress Model
Diathesis
“Predisposing Causes”
(hereditary predisposition)
Biopsychosocial
Approach
Disorder
• emphasizes interaction of
biological and social factors
Recovery
Stress
“Precipitating Causes”
(situational factors)
“Maintaining Causes”
Mood
• Normal
– minor mood fluctuations
Time
• Major Depression
– very severe symptoms that last for at least
two weeks
• Dysthymia
– less severe symptoms than major
depression that last for 2+ years
• Bipolar disorder (Manic Depression)
– includes upward mood swings as well as
downward mood swings
• Cyclothymia
– less severe than bipolar
disorder
≠
schizophrenia = “splitting of the mind”
• refers to break between emotion and
thought
(the disorder formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder or Split Personality)
≠
What is Schizophrenia?
POSITIVE SYMPTOMS
• symptoms that are present in
schizophrenics but not normals
1. thought disorder
– disorganized, irrational thinking
2. delusions
– beliefs that are obviously false
– delusions of persecution
•
false belief that others are plotting
against oneself
– delusions of grandeur
•
false beliefs in one’s power and
importance (e.g., believing one has
godlike powers)
– delusions of control
•
false belief that others are controlling
oneself (e.g., through radio receivers)
3. hallucinations
– perceptions of stimuli that are not
actually present
– typically auditory hallucinations (often
voices)
– can occur with other senses
Personality Disorder Classification
DRAMATIC/IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
Histrionic
Seductive behavior; needs immediate gratification and constant reassurance;
rapidly changing moods; shallow emotions.
Narcissistic
Self-absorbed; expects special treatment and adulation; envious of attention to
others.
Borderline
Cannot stand to be alone; intense, unstable moods and personal relationships;
chronic anger; drug and alcohol abuse.
Antisocial
Manipulative, exploitative and dishonest; disloyal; lacking in guilt; habitually
breaks social rules; childhood history of such behavior; often in trouble with the
law.
ANXIOUS/FEARFUL BEHAVIOR
Avoidant
Easily hurt and embarrassed; few close friends; sticks to routines to avoid new
and possibly stressful experiences.
Dependent
Wants others to make decisions; needs constant advice and reassurance; fears
being abandoned.
Obsessive-compulsive
Perfectionistic; overconscientious; indecisive; preoccupied with details; stiff;
unable to express affection.
ODD/ECCENTRIC BEHAVIOR
Paranoid
Tense, guarded, suspicious, holds grudges.
Schizoid
Socially isolated with restricted emotional expression.
Schizotypal
Peculiarities of thought, appearance and behavior that are disconcerting to
others; emotionally detached and isolated.
Two Major Approaches
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
• “It’s your neurotransmitters/brain.”
– Psychopharmacology
– Electroshock Therapy
– Psychosurgery
PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
• “It’s your life/behavior/reaction.”
– Psychotherapy
•
•
•
•
•
Psychoanalysis
Humanistic Therapy
Cognitive Therapy
Behaviour Therapy
Other