Classical Social Theory
Social Theory & Modernity
• Emergence of social theory and of modernity
are concurrent processes
• Social theory (scientific way of thinking about
society) is a product of modernity
[this is in itself a theory, proposed in
Harrington‘s chapter 1]
• Why should this be the case?
• If so, then a look at these conditions of origin
might help to understand what social theory is
all about
Modernity
• A contested concept
• Historical period: 15th, 16th, 17th or 18th century - ????
• Attitude to time: critical reflection/distance from past (as
history) + actively shaping the collective future
• Idea of progress (<-> cycle)
• Opposite of „tradition“
• Tradition: accepting the way things have always been,
following precedent and example of elders, priests, moral
leaders
• Modernity & tradition can exist in a society at the same
time
• Parsons: traditional s. – ascription, modern s. - achievement
Postmodernity
• Period after modernity (roughly since mid/late 20th
century
• Time of constant change
• No universal laws possible
• Idea of progress gets blurred
• No linearity of thought, some even claim no truth, no
right or wrong, nothing moral or immoral
• Everything is relative, flexible etc.
• Idea of Postmodernity is highly contested
Dimension of Modernity
1. Cultural Modernity
2. Political Modernity
3. Socio-Economic Modernity
Cultural Modernity
• Rise of natural science and mathematics
• There are laws of nature to be „observed“ and
„experienced“
– Galileo, Newton, Descartes, Darwin
• rational thinking vs dogma
• Secularization: intellectual authority of
religion has been replaced by science
• Enlightenment, the Age of Reason
Political Modernity
• Protestantism: rejection of authority of the
Catholic Church in Rome
• Rise of the nation-state (sovereignty)
• Human rights (natural law)
• Popular sovereignty
• Representative democracy
– Locke, Kant, Rousseau
– American Revolution, French Revolution
Socio-economic Modernity
• Enclosures, property law, trading companies,
banks (capital accumulation)
• Industrialization
• Urbanization
• Modern Capitalism
Theorizing Modernity
• Cultural, political and socio-economic
dimension are strongly inter-related
• But how exactly?
• What is driving what?
• How can we explain the dramatic cultural,
political and socio-economic changes of that
time?
• This was the question of the early sociologists
and classical social theory
Some answers (in a nutshell)
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Political Economy: Adam Smith
Liberalism: J.S. Mill, Alexis de Toqueville
Positivism: Auguste Comte
Marxism
Elite Theories: Mosca, Pareto, Michels
Political Economy: Adam Smith
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The Wealth of Nations 1776
Universal laws of economic behaviour
Market theory: price = demand & supply
Individual self-interest -> collective good
„Hidden hand“ of the market
(Yet, Smith knew that the state is needed)
Liberalism: Alexis de Tocqueville
• Liberalism: John Locke, John Stuart Mill, Alexis de
Tocqueville
• Progress = freedom to own property and to trade,
religious tolerance, constitutional law and
representative democracy, yet limited government
• Negative concept of freedom: freedom from
intervention
• Tocqueville / Democracy in America 1835
• Importance of civil society (mediating between
law/state and self-interested individuals
• Voluntary associations with roots in protestant sects of
original settlers: individualism + egalitarianism
Positivism: Auguste Comte
• Knowledge arises from empirical observation
not metaphysical preconceptions
• Social science should follow the natural
sciences (this leads to social progress)
• Law of 3 stages of integration (theological,
metaphysical, rational)
• Teleological view of history
Marxism
• Historical materialism
• History: dialectical process of class struggles
between those who own the means of
production and those who don‘t
• Economic base is determining
social/cultural/political superstructure
• Marx takes part in class struggle (taking sides,
changing the world)
• Yet: analysis of capitalism (Das Kapital, 1867)
• deterministic
Elite Theories: Mosca, Pareto, Michels
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Against Liberalism and Marxism
Liberal Democracy: only formal
Yet: socialism not possible
Focus on the social/political elite
Elite, „Ruling Class“ (Mosca), is power seeking
Iron Rule of Oligarchy (even in socialist
movements/parties) Robert Michels
• Pessimism
• Neither institutions, nor economic structures
determine outcomes but elites
• Leads to Rational Choice, actor-centred approaches
• These classical social theories are not „state of
the art“ anymore, some would say they are
outdated, did not stand the test of time (have
been falsified by empirical evidence)
• However, many current social theories draw
upon these thinkers, have adapted , refined or
advanced some of their central arguments
Modernisation Theory
ca. 1950s USA
• non modern societies (non-Western) seen as
not-yet-modern
• Unilinear course through which all societies
pass (towards modernity)
• All societies will/should eventually follow the
Western model
• Linearity in social development (increasing
differentiation of social, economic and
political system)
Group Work
• Have a critical look at the central arguments
of:
– Liberalism
– Marxism
– Elite Theories
and argue against them