INTER-UNIVERSITY COUNCIL FOR EAST AFRICA
TOWARDS A REGIONAL
QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE EAST
AFRICAN COMMUNITY
Meeting EAC Human
Resource Needs
Mohammed Kerre, Fr. Charles Kitima & Salim Mwawaza
2014
[TYPE
THE COMPANY ADDRESS]
Meeting EAC Human Resource Needs
Inter-University Council for East
Africa
2014
East African Business Council
Finding Higher Education Competence Sweet Spot
Country Situational Reports 2013
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Content
Abbreviations
4
PART ONE: STUDY NARRATIVE
5
I. Introduction
II. Study Expectations
III. Study Methodology
IV. Key Findings
5
6
7
10
PART TWO: COUNTRY CASE (SITUATIONAL) REPORTS
24
Situational Report Burundi
25
Situational Report Kenya
42
Situational Report Rwanda
73
Situational Report Tanzania
93
Situational Report Uganda
117
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Abbreviations
"A"-Level
ASTD
ATE
AU
BTVET
C-BET
CHE
COMESA
CoT
CTI
CUE
DIT
DRC
EAC
EDPRS
ESSP
EU
FDI
GDP
HEI
ICT
ISO
K-BET
KCPE
KCSE
KNBS
LS
LTSFF
MDA
MUHAS
NACTE
NCHE
NM-AIST
NQF
ODAI
"O" Level
OTI
PEACCM
PST
PTTF
QA
QF
REC
RV
S-BET
SID
ST
STEM
Advanced Level of Education or Form Six Level
American Society for Training and Development
Association of Tanzania Employers
African Union
Business Technical and Vocational Education & Training
Competency-Based Education and Training
Council for Higher Education
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
College of Technology
Confederation of Tanzania Industries
Commission for University Education
Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology
Democratic Republic of Congo
East African Community
Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy
Education Sector Strategic Plan
European Union
Foreign Direct Investment
Gross Domestic Product
Higher Education Institution
Information Communication Technology
International Standards Organisation
Knowledge-Based Education and Training
Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
Lower Secondary
Long-Term Strategy and Financial Framework
Ministry, Department Agency/Authority
Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences
National Council for Technical Education
National Commission for Higher Education
The Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and Technology
National Qualifications Framework
Other Degree Awarding institutions
Ordinary Level of education or Form Four Education
Other Tertiary Institutions
Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Community Common Market
Performance Stand Tables
Practical Technical Training Framework
Quality Assurance
Qualifications Framework
Regional Economic Community
Rwanda Vision 2020
Skills-Based Education and Training
Society for International Development
Study Team
Science Technology, Engineering and Math
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TCDF
TCU
TE
TIQET
TIVET
TSS
TVET
UALCE
UNESCO
UNIDO
UQF
US
USD
VTCs
WDA
ZANEMA
2014
Technical Institute Vocational Education & Training Curriculum Development Framework
Tanzania Commission for Universities
Tertiary Education
Total Integrated Quality Education and Training
Technical Institute Vocational Education and Training
Technical Secondary School
Technical Vocational Education and Training
Uganda Advanced Level Certificate of Education
United Nations Education and Science Commission
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
University Qualifications Framework
United States of America
US Dollar
Vocational Training Centres
Workforce Development Authority
Zanzibar Employers Association
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PART ONE : STUDY NARRATIVE
I.
Introduction
This study is being undertaken at the time when the biggest challenges facing employers in the region
is a shortage of up-to-date technical and professional skills. While the East African Community (EAC)
Partner States major higher education institutions are still holding dead stock in laboratory machinery
and equipment, the world is moving into electric cars, new sources of energy, software-driven
products and services, changes in the regulatory landscape, the explosion of mobile computing
applications, Big Data and the Internet of things, and a shift toward service-based offerings, all
requiring new skills. Companies (like Motorola Solutions, Adobe, IBM, and Xerox), with presence in the
EAC region, have made large investments for training their own teams to evolve from product sellers
to solution and industry experts. Other companies (like Ericsson, EMC, Lockheed Martin, and Cisco)
have transformed their engineering teams to focus on new products in consumer electronics, Big
Data, telecommunications, and cyber-security. This is challenging the universities as institutions
charged with providing job-entry level skills, to ensure that their graduates are relevant to the
industry, and demonstrate potential for learning and growth.
Demand for quality, comparable and relevant education in East Africa is rising as authorities press for
greater higher education efficiency and effectiveness at home and as universities expand their
operations across the borders, and emerging local institutions see themselves as uniquely suited to
offer relevant university education to local citizens geared to meet labour market demands . But the
growing universities with cross-border operations are also getting to speed on idiosyncratic student
requirements and local regulations. Higher education qualifications framework is another driver.
As the old universities struggle to stay the path in innovation and development, the emerging public
and private universities, seem keen on blazing a trail for the region by forcing the shift of the
university growth model in favour of productivity. It is argued that this is the only way the higher
education institutions in the East African Community region will secure their presence at the top level
of international education and research diplomacy.
The pace of technology change accelerates each year, creating even more demand for highly educated
people. Research shows that 30 percent of all new jobs in the next 10 years will require a college
degree - distancing the earnings potential of college graduates from those without a college
education. Will businesses wait for these gaps to be filled? Not likely—they tell us that they need
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stronger technical capabilities, and are investing heavily in deep specialization programs, technical
training, apprenticeships, and eagerly seeking partnerships with universities.
As the world’s population grows from around 7 billion in 2012 to around 9 billion by 2050, the
population of Africa south of the Sahara is likely to surge from around 850 million today to around 1.7
billion in 2050. East Africa alone will make up more than 44 percent of the population of Africa south
of the Sahara and almost 9 percent of the world’s population in 2050. Most of the people accounting
for this population increase are expected to live in urban areas and to have higher incomes than
currently is the case, which will result in increased demand for food. In the best of circumstances, the
challenge of meeting this demand in a sustainable manner will be enormous. When one takes into
account the effects of climate change (higher temperatures, shifting seasons, more frequent and
extreme weather events, flooding, and drought) on food production, that challenge grows even more
daunting. The global food price spikes of 2008, 2010, and 2012 are harbingers of a troubled future for
global food security.
Labor productivity in eastern and central Africa has declined to the extent that the region produced
less per worker in 2000 than it did four decades earlier (Omamo et al. 2006), especially in Kenya and
Tanzania, as opposed to labor productivity in Rwanda, and Uganda which has recovered substantially
in recent years. Given these trends in agricultural productivity in eastern and central Africa, it is not
surprising that the average yields of the region’s major crops currently fall well below those elsewhere
in Africa and even further below global levels. Only for cassava, beans, coffee, and tea do the yields of
eastern and central Africa compare favorably with average African and global yields. These challenges
are redefining many of the problems facing policymakers and the academia in eastern and central
Africa and thus the kinds of policy solutions and human capital development models required. Most of
these forces have roots and expressions that extend beyond national boundaries, implying the need
for broad perspectives and regional responses.
Institutions, from banks to governments, have to answer new questions about how they will change
what they do in order to change how society works. Universities are no exception. This report asks
what universities are doing to help create a EAC that is more socially mobile, and what more they
could do. The answer to the first question seems to be quite a lot. The answer to the second is that
they could, and should, be doing a lot more – and in a far more focused way.
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II.
2014
Study Expectations
The study aims at establishing the qualifications gaps existing in the region’s higher education systems
versus the region’s human resources needs and provision for harmonization of higher education and
training systems and mutual recognition of qualifications. It is also designed to improve the
understanding of the issues pertaining to implementation of national and regional higher education
qualifications framework. Particularly the scoping study sought to
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Provide the basis for integrating all higher education qualifications into a common regional
qualifications framework to facilitate the development of a common and regionally
coordinated higher education system;
Provide structures for the generation of benchmarks, standards, and quality assurance
mechanisms;
Provide a mechanism for improving harmonization of the higher education system;
Indicate the articulation routes between qualifications, thereby enhancing the flexibility of the
system and enabling learners to move more efficiently from one programme to another as
they pursue their academic or professional careers, regardless of the study duration;
Clarify the interpretation of existing qualification types, e.g. a Bachelor’s degree, as having two
potential orientations – professional and general academic;
Provide for greater flexibility and options with respect to professionally oriented qualifications;
Simplify the readability of parameters of qualification types such as credit specification within
a qualification; and
Instill confidence in the public in the achievements represented by higher education
qualifications.
III.
Study Methodology
In carrying out this study we took evidence from a range of sources. A list of the institutions and
organisations consulted is in the Annex.
3.1 Content Review
The Study Team (ST), comprising of three experts from the academia and labour market, supported by
Focal Point persons in the national commissions of Partner States responsible for higher education in
all the five Partner States, conducted a thorough and comprehensive desk-based review of available
data and analysis on policy and regulatory framework; institutional arrangement; current practices of
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admission - assessment, examination and award of qualifications in higher education; and the labour
market participation. The Team also reviewed government research and statistics, think-tank
publications, university publications and academic journals in order to construct an informed picture
of the current situation and the key issues influencing the process and outcome of qualifications.
3.2 Informant Interviews
University Deep Dives
The ST conducted in-depth visits to 33 universities across EAC region. At each visit, a range of staff
was consulted, including the vice-chancellor and other members of the senior management team, the
registrar, the heads of quality assurance. The full list of universities visited is as follows:
Burundi
Kenya
1. University of Burundi
1. University of Nairobi
2. Hope University
2. The Technical University of Kenya
3. Teacher’s training institute(Ecole Normale 3. Strathmore University
Superieure)
4. Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
4. Health Institute
Technology
5. Moi University
5. Light University(Universite Lumiere)
6. University of Eastern Africa, Baraton
7. Kenyatta University
Rwanda
Uganda
1. University of Rwanda(KIST, NUR, Higher
institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry,
Busogo)
2. ULK
3. Adventist University of Central Africa
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tanzania (Mainland)
Tanzania (Zanzibar)
Makerere University
Islamic University in Uganda
Kampala International university
Uganda Christian University
5. Mbarara University of Science and Technology
1.
2.
3.
4.
University of Dar es Salaam
1. State University of Zanzibar
Dar es Salaam Institute of technology
2. University of Zanzibar
Muhimbili University of Health Sciences
Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science
and Texhnology
5. Mount Meru University
6. Tumaini University
7. MUCCOBS
8. Mwenge University
9. Open University of Tanzania
10. Sokoine University of Science &Technology
11. Muslim University of Morogoro
12. University of Dodoma
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Private Sector
Private sector representative organisations including chambers of commerce, private sector
foundations/federations/alliances, associations of manufacturers, and federations of employers were
also interviewed at country level. In total twelve organizations were involved in informant interviews
with our team.
Government Evidence
Informant interviews were also held with Ministries of Education and Commissions/Councils
responsible for university education in all the five Partner States on national policies, strategies,
philosophies and priorities of education and training. The ST held a series of brain storming sessions
with persons representing these institutions on their national qualifications systems, skills gaps and
efforts by nations to mitigate.
3.3 Interview Questionnaires
Interview questionnaires were emailed (between 1st December 2013 and 6th January 2014) to all
responsible government ministries, departments and agencies; universities, and associations
representing the labour market in the five Partner States. The responsibility to follow-up was left to
the national Commissions/ Councils responsible for university education. Responses to these
questionnaires are now trickling.
3.4 Stakeholder Workshops
We have planned stakeholder workshops as soon as a fair draft of the Composite Report is Ready.
3.5 Study Findings
Scoping Study findings are being compiled in three phases.
Phase 1 includes Country Interim Situational Reports, and this Narrative summary
Phase 2: Includes the Composite Regional Report,
Phase 3: Draft East African Higher Education Policy Framework
Phase 4: The Draft Legal Framework for a Regional Qualifications Framework
These are the documents that will be shared with stakeholders at Stakeholder Workshops.
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IV.
2014
Key Findings
1. Introduction
1.1 East Africa is an important leader for the quality and diversity of its universities 1. It demonstrates
a high level of cultural, religious, public and business sector participation in promotion and
development of higher education. From Burundi through Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya to Tanzania
three major teaching and learning languages dominate - French, English and Swahili. According
to one prominent league table, the EAC has eleven of the top 100 universities in Africa, led by
the University of Dar es Salaam (6), Makerere University (10), University of Nairobi (17),
Universite' Nationale du Rwanda (40), Strathmore University (44), Jomo Kenyatta University of
Agriculture and Technology (56), Kenyatta University (61), United States International University
(77), Egerton University (80), Moi University (85) and The Hubert Kairuki Memorial University
(98).
1.2 The EAC higher education system has strength in depth, too. The reputation of the EAC’s higher
education sector depends not just on a handful of selective institutions. In the EAC today there
are 169 higher education institutions. There are also a significant number of further education
colleges at which higher education is taught. All universities undertake research and teaching,
and actively contribute towards their community. Yet the balance of these activities, as well as
how they are achieved and articulated, vary enormously. This diversity is likely to increase as the
sector grows, delivering higher- level qualifications and vocational skills, with new providers
operating domestically, internationally and online.
1.3
1
Universities in the EAC are in the spotlight as never before. In part this new focus is the result of
changes over the last decade in public policy towards higher education. The introduction of
tuition fees (except in public universities in Burundi) has brought to a head public concern about
whether access to university is genuinely meritocratic and fair. In particular, the steep rise in
tuition fees, has caused widespread anxiety about whether the cost of higher education will
deter people from poorer family backgrounds from applying to university. More generally, in the
wake of the growing inflation and poverty, there is a growing public concern about inequality in
society.
In this study we use university interchangeably with higher education institutions, excluding further education colleges offering certificates and
diplomas.
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1.4 Proposals have been made that university students should not be required to pay anywhere near
or above the country's per capita income in tuition fees. This should, if implemented ensure
depth and participation. A climate of fiscal constraint, a cap on student numbers and a big
increase in tuition fees are significant new headwinds which universities now face in making
further progress on widening participation and fair access. Clearly government policy is a major
influence here –but universities themselves will need to redouble their efforts if a university
place is to be genuinely open to all those with talent and potential.
1.5 Like many other institutions, universities are having to answer new and profound questions
about the role they play and the contribution they can make to a future that is fairer. This new,
more acute, accountability is particularly sharp when the public services – including universities
– have to prove, in a climate of fiscal austerity, that they are delivering the best outcomes for the
resources they receive.
2. Bridging the Skills Gaps
2.1 The American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) has defined skills gap as a significant
gap between an organization’s current capabilities and the skills it needs to achieve its goals. It is
the point at which an organization can no longer grow or remain competitive because it cannot
fill critical jobs with employees who have the right knowledge, skills, and abilities. It is not just
individual organizations or sectors that are feeling the consequences of the skills gap.
Communities, states, regions, and entire nations pay a heavy price when they cannot find or
equip workers with the right skills for critical jobs.
2.2 On a national level, the state of employment continues to play a major role in each of the EAC
Partner States skills scene. The unemployment rate continues to grow. While the number of
unemployed workers remains fairly high, the number of job openings is on the rise especially in
the informal sector, which is providing, on an annual basis, more than 85% of all new jobs. The
modern sector, including the public service are on the lower end of creating employment new
opportunities. Therefore, despite a large pool of unemployed workers, employers continue to
struggle to find skilled talent to fill the growing number of job openings in the Partner States.
2.3 Middle- and high-skills jobs comprise the largest gaps. Middle skills describe highly specialized
mechanical, technical, and production careers that may require industry or government
certification but not necessarily a bachelor’s degree. Growing middle-skills industries such as
manufacturing, construction, and healthcare are facing the most significant skills shortages.
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Employers in high-skills STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) fields, which require
at least an undergraduate degree, also will be hard-pressed to find adequate talent in coming
years, as each Partner state near the completion of the national Vision Plan target.
2.4 Take the fields of energy - petroleum, hydro, geothermal, wind and solar there’s a need to train
and develop a skilled workforce in the nuclear value chain—across the entire industry.
Information technology is another evolving high-skills field that needs qualified workers to keep
pace with its ongoing change. According to chairman of the Federation of Chamber of Commerce
in Burundi more than 75% of business in Burundi rate the aggregate skill levels of their IT staff as
less than optimal, and 93 percent of employers indicate that there is an overall skills gap among
employees. The Institute of Computing Kenya cites the top industry skills gap concerns:
networks/infrastructure, server/data center management, storage/data back-up, cybersecurity,
database/information management, and web design/development. The dynamic nature of the IT
space is a primary cause of talent shortages, as well as a lack of resources for professional
development.
2.5 Additionally, construction industry in the region is becoming aware of the international direction
towards a growing green skills job market: The sector is not prepared for this yet and sees a great
challenge ahead in the next 5-10 years finding skilled green workers - , architecture/engineering,
general contractors etc.
2.6 In addition to industry skills gaps, employers are observing a lack of critical soft skills—such as
communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking—in today’s workforce. These soft
skills continue to exist even with the EAC.’s persistent unemployment. These enhanced soft skills
are important to support business expansion and stabilisation.
2.7 Employer associations indicate that leadership and executive skills, managerial and supervisory
skills, and profession- or industry- specific skills are the highest areas for skills gaps. It is
important to note that managerial and supervisory skills are ranked by employer associations as
the first or second biggest gaps.
3. Education and Mobility
3.1 Universities exist to provide high-quality education. But they have a broader economic and social
role. They are the gatekeepers of opportunity and the main pathway into careers in the
professions. As the EAC economy becomes knowledge-based and professionalized, the role
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universities play will assume greater importance. Who gets into university, and how they get on
once they have left, will have a critical role in determining whether EAC’s rates of social mobility
can be improved. At present, the EAC’s universities (apart from Burundi public higher education
institutions) seem to be less open to people from lower and middle income groups in society
than those in the EU, US and Australia. Social mobility is about ensuring that every person – and,
in particular, every child – regardless of their background, their circumstances, or their social
class, has an equal opportunity to get on in life. That entails breaking the transmission of
disadvantage from one generation to the next.
3.2 Education and employability are at the core of making progress in creating a level playing field of
opportunity. For education to be a leveller of opportunity, all those with ability, aptitude and
potential need to have equal access to what it can offer. For example, one recent report 2 found
that, because of inequalities in access to higher education and the increasing importance of
higher education in getting on in the modern labour market, universities have actually
contributed towards making society less mobile over the last 40 years.7 Equally, as we will see
later in this report, there is good evidence that, over recent years, universities have made some
progress in narrowing the social gap in higher education participation. The crucial questions are
whether that progress is sufficient given changes in the structure of the British economy and
labour market, and whether recent improvements can be accelerated.
3.3 The debate on universities and social mobility has become deeply polarised, between those who
argue for greater equity in who gets into university and those who believe that standards will
suffer unless excellence, not equity, is the guiding principle governing admissions processes.
Those who defend excellence tend to take a view that a university place should be determined
by a simple principle: attainment at "O" or "A"-level. They recognise that universities should do
more to help schools and colleges raise standards to widen the pool of students who can apply
for a place at the most selective universities, but believe that altering admissions procedures to
change the social mix at selective institutions would damage quality and threaten their, often
global, reputations. In addition, some worry that lowering entry standards would punish schools
that do exceptionally well, and reward schools that are prone to failure. On the other side stand
those who believe that universities, particularly highly selective universities, need to be doing
much more to widen access to ensure greater diversity in their student populations. Those on
the equity side of the argument conclude that progress can only be made if universities take
account of broader social factors, alongside academic attainment, in determining who gets into
the top institutions. They argue that the most selective universities need to take more
2
Society for International Development (SID), 'One People, One Destiny: The future of Inequality in East Africa' 2013
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responsibility for the consequences of their admissions processes, instead of simply blaming the
school system for failing to create a wider pool of talent from which they can recruit. Both sides
agree that access to university remains inequitable. They both share the goal of making access to
university classless, so that those with potential, irrespective of background, get the places they
deserve. The difference between them lies in how best to do so.
3.4 Should the focus primarily be on schools, supported by university outreach activity? Or should
university admissions also play a part? The answer in this report is that both approaches are
needed if participation is to be wide and access is to be fair. It argues that every university
should seek to do more to widen participation and make access fairer. Different universities,
however, should be able to place different emphasis on the respective parts of this agenda.
Citing evidence from the US – where the top Ivy League universities explicitly plan their
admissions each year to ensure diversity –most key informants in the university system in East
Africa argue that the distinction between equity and excellence is a false one. If we are to allow
all individuals the potential to flourish, we must move beyond this type of thinking. Prosperity in
an increasingly competitive global market relies on our region (the EAC) developing the potential
of all of those with aptitude, ability and aspiration. All universities have a role to play in making
sure that equity and excellence are friends, not enemies, and that aptitude, ability and aspiration
should drive the learning process.
3.5 Social mobility took off in the 1950s thanks to big changes in the structure of the labour market.
The shift from a manufacturing to a service economy drove demand for new skills and opened
up more opportunities for professional and white-collar employment. More ‘room at the top’
enabled millions of women and men to step up. Social mobility has slowed down in the decades
since, primarily because of another big change in the labour market: the emergence of a
knowledge- based economy. Over recent decades, people with higher skills have seen large
increases in productivity and pay, while those with low skills have experienced reduced demand
for their labour and lower average earnings.
3.6 Today we have a segregated labour market. Those with skills and qualifications enjoy greater job
security, higher levels of prosperity and better prospects of social advance. Those without skills
find it hard to escape a world of constant insecurity, endemic low pay and little prospect of social
progress. Bridging this divide is at the heart of making our society fairer. Of course there will be
many people for whom university is not appealing. For those who do not aspire to higher
education new solutions need to be found to provide better opportunities to progress. A higher
priority on vocational education and easier routes into a professional career are among the
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answers policy-makers are looking at in the region and this has influenced the emergence of
technical universities. But overall it is likely that many more people will want, and need, to
access higher education in the future. There are two principal reasons for that:
a) The first is economic. The EAC economy is becoming ever more service-based and the
labour market ever more professionalized. In the next decade alone, the total number of
jobs in managerial, professional and associate professional occupations, across the region
is projected to increase by 1.75 million while the total number of jobs in other occupations
is projected to decrease by over 300,000. Access to these professional jobs overwhelmingly
depends on having a university degree.
b) The second reason is social. Learning is increasingly a lifetime journey. The traditional
image of a student as an 18 year old who has just finished O or A-levels and has left the
family home to live and study full-time at university is outdated. This is one pathway to
university, but it is certainly not the only one. Across the region, approximately 48% of
students are studying part time3.
4. Making the Entry Level Grade
4.1 In the EAC region universities depend on schools to bring higher education within reach of their
pupils. In an ideal world, all schools would be of a uniformly high standard and universities could
simply select students on the basis of prior attainment. In the real world there is no such level
playing field of opportunity. Educational, economic, and social capital are not evenly distributed.
Highly selective universities in particular argue that the most important reason why too few
students from disadvantaged backgrounds even apply to them is that they are not achieving the
right grades at school in the right subjects. Many children from poorer backgrounds are
significantly underperforming at school and this is the key reason why so few of them are gaining
a place at a leading universities in the region. They argue that the answer to the university access
problem lies not in universities but in schools. There is much truth in this argument, although it is
not sufficient in itself to explain why access remains unfair and participation less wide than it
should be. Universities cannot simply blame schools for inequities in access.
4.2 Attainment at age 16 to 18 is key to children’s future educational and employment chances.
Approximately nine in ten of all students who get two or more As at O-levels (Kenya) and Alevels (the rest of EAC) go on to university. The problem is that currently about half of 16-18 year
olds do not achieve the minimum standards to enable them cross over. The chances of a child
3
For two reasons, they need to work to raise money for tuition and accommodation, or they cannot afford full-time study continues due to poverty.
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who is eligible for free school meals (FSM) getting good qualifications at age 16 are just over half
those for better-off classmates: only about one-third of children eligible for FSM tend to make it.
4.3 In addition, there is uneven attainment in particular subjects. Highly selective universities often
require grades in specific subjects called facilitating subjects (math, English, science), and people
from poorer backgrounds are far less likely to study these, although in some countries the
government has also made it mandatory - but with poor facilities and lack of teachers - this is
made impossible for children from poor and marginalised communities. These subjects are
studied far more commonly by pupils educated in the private and selective sectors. In short, the
pool of talent from which universities can recruit is more limited than it should be because of the
gap in attainment between private and state schools, between better-off pupils and worse-off
ones, and between those who study key subjects and those who do not. If access to university is
genuinely to become classless, there will need to be progress in closing each of these attainment
gaps. Governments of the five Partner States, obviously, have a key role to play, but so do
universities.
5. Outreach and Student Awareness
5.1 We did not experience many cases where universities are undertaking a variety of activities to
take information about higher education to school pupils and local communities. It is crucial that
universities work with schools to introduce the pupils to university education. There are core
underlying factors which outreach should address in the pupil, as:
•
•
•
•
raising aspirations towards higher education progression
improving awareness and knowledge about progression
driving up attainment at O or A-level
evidence of actual progression.
5.2 The few universities that are currently running outreach programmes (2 identified in Kenya, 3 in
Tanzania, 1 in Rwanda and 2 in Uganda) had one common activity which they undertake - raising
aspiration, attainment and awareness of higher education, for example through pupils’ campus
visits and mentoring programmes.
5.3 Outreach programmes should in essence lay the foundation for providing special entry pathways
into higher education, for example through foundation years courses; provide curriculum and
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energise their love for the subject; and develop partnerships, for example by supporting
community schools and academies.
5.4 A model and impactful way of university-school partnership to promote outcomes based
learning should have the following features:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
an early start, ideally before secondary school pupils make their university level subject
choices
a structured and sustained programme of relatively intense engagement, rather than a
series of disparate and superficial interventions
to use long school vacations, to allow students to experience higher education rather than
just hear about it
an impartial approach that puts the interests of the student first, situating the choice of 'if
and where' to study at university in the context of the long-term aspirations of the
individual
a range of options for students, rather than having a one-size-fits-all approach
a link between a pupil’s participation in an outreach programme and being offered a place
at university
a focus on both driving up attainment, as well as broadening the horizons of students, and
providing clear guidance on pathways towards achieving specific ambitions.
5.5 At present there is insufficient evidence of universities working together to pool knowledge and
effort about what works in enhancing skills and competencies, and to facilitate growth of talent
at secondary school to be harnessed and developed at university for industry .There is urgency
for universities to take the lead in building networks of collaboration both regionally and
nationally to develop capacity to undertake this process, and preparatory work towards a
realistic generation of benchmarks, standards, and quality assurance mechanisms; and an
integrated higher education qualifications framework.
6. University Admissions
6.1 Universities, as autonomous institutions, should be able to determine their own admissions
criteria. This has indeed by affirmed in the respective Partner State regulatory systems and in the
works of the Commissions/Councils responsible for university education. This should, however,
be guided by the following five principles that form the basis of fair admissions:
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•
•
•
•
•
2014
be transparent
enable institutions to select students who are able to complete the course, as judged by
their achievements and their potential
strive to use assessment methods that are reliable and valid
seek to minimize barriers to applicants
be professional in every respect and underpinned by appropriate institutional structures
and processes.
6.2 While these principles should form the basis of any admissions process, the particular mission of
a university may lead to different strategies or criteria for entry4. An examination of available
university admission materials collected from the region does not reveal principles for higher
education access. However, discussion with the key informants representing different
universities visited seem to point to the following as possible principles for higher education
access:
•
•
•
academic merit should be the sole standard of access. The student must have excelled in
the entry exam. Some universities even go further to contact entry interviews, to in
addition gauge additional skills and traits for the programme the student intends to pursue
access mechanisms should promote fairness in selection and admission to correct for
background social inequalities
access should depend on what the students are likely to do with the education they get
(this is a tenet subscribed to by some of the faith-based and technical universities).
6.3 All universities participating in the consultative meetings are clear that, for them, excellence is
the primary driver of admissions. Often, particularly in public debate, an emphasis on excellence
is confused with a sole focus on prior attainment. While it is true that traditionally universities in
the EAC have tended to rely on academic attainment at O and A-level as the primary criterion
against which an applicant should be judged for a place, we cannot say for sure that it has ever
been the sole determinant for most universities' entry. Of course, no single indicator provides
better evidence of how a young person will do at university than their O or A-level results. But
they are not foolproof in predicting future performance or guaranteeing that admission to
university is genuinely meritocratic. A growing evidence base suggests that over-reliance on O
and A-level results engineers a distorted intake to universities, and fails to meet the criteria of
excellence.
4
All universities visited indicated that they followed the letter the guidelines provided by the regulatory authority (The Commission/Council for university
education) as generic guidelines enabling them to lay their entry and admission benchmarks. Other countries within the region follow criteria provided
by the Joint Admissions Boards.
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6.4 As discussed earlier, the idea of the typical student is something of a myth. Admissions processes
should match the reality of the changing student profile. Universities need to be able to tell that
potential applicants have the skills and competencies to succeed on a given course. They should
be able to develop and put in place mechanism to drive this process.
7. Student Retention and the Workings of the Credit Transfer
7.1 Getting into university is not the end of the story. In order to realise the benefits of higher
education, students need to successfully complete their degree. This is particularly important in
the new fee regime across the region, as students who do not complete their degree will have
built up a higher debt without accruing the benefits. Clearly, higher retention rates should not
come at the cost of lowering quality, but there is a wider benefit in universities supporting
students so that they do not drop out – not least because those who are currently most liable to
do so are more likely to come from less advantaged backgrounds.
7.2 There are, however, some clear patterns. Retention rates are not uniform across different
segments of the student population. The factor most affecting a student’s chance of continuing
is whether they are studying full time or part time, with part-time students 3.3 times more likely
to drop out. For full-time students, the single biggest factor is the level of their educational
attainment prior to university. Also, the drop-out rate for students from poorer backgrounds is
higher than that for those from relatively affluent backgrounds.
7.3 While it is important for universities to monitor drop-out rates and target resources at risk
points, isolated interventions are not always enough to transform retention rates. A holistic
approach is needed, both across services and across the period spent at university. Student
support services need to be joined up within the institution, and lessons learned and information
shared. This includes the teams who work on recruitment and admissions, as valuable
information may come up at both these stages regarding the kinds of support that students
need. A holistic approach also involves recognising that retention work starts when students first
contact a university, for example when applying, rather than when they start their degree.
Effective information and guidance are important, so that people apply to courses which suit
their aspirations and on which they can succeed. Discussions with universities suggest that, with
the rise in tuition fees, student expectations are also rising. Active preparatory work will become
increasingly vital, both in letting prospective students know what to expect, and in ensuring that
they are aware of the support which is available.
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7.4 Universities can do more to ensure that students have the essential skills they require to
complete their degrees. Applicants from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to have
developed certain skills, such as essay writing. Clearly some university courses will rightly require
a high level of prior knowledge, for example, some science subjects require students to have a
high degree of mathematical knowledge on day one in order to succeed. Other courses will have
far fewer direct constraints and more flexibility, such as some humanities subjects. Many
universities accept that international students may need support in developing their language
skills in order to thrive on a course and so offer language classes. Similarly, some universities
which admit a high number of mature students recognise that their students may not have
written an essay in many years and so provide teaching in how to do so5.
7.5 Despite the many steps described above that could prevent students dropping out of university,
some will inevitably do so. What is important is that the higher education system is flexible
enough to enable students to switch paths while studying, in the event that new aspirations or
unexpected life circumstances interrupt their study. The current practice by some universities is
to allow students between 30-50 credit transfers between institutions. This is a cause for
concern. It suggests a growing flexibility in moving within an institution, but no greater flexibility
in moving between institutions. In part this is because of the structure of the honours degree
classification system, which may not fit for purpose, because of their 'summative evaluation
framework' at the end of a student’s education. The honors degree system does not recognise
the skills developed over the course of a degree as part of an ongoing process of learning, and
makes it more difficult to transfer credits from one course to another, making it more
challenging for those who do drop out to continue their studies elsewhere.
7.6 While most institutions do use some form of credit system, and the newly introduced Quality
Assurance Programmes provide guidelines on credit transfer arrangements, more clarity and
consistency would be a positive development.
7.7 Progress on credit transfer has been too slow. All universities will have experience of enabling
students, in some circumstances, to transfer both within and between institutions, when the
quality assurance process is fully operational, and is able to provide and administer standards
and formal arrangements, to simplify the process of transferring and make the options for
students more transparent. In fact discussions revealed that the current system seems to offer
5
These services appear out of reach to most students in East Africa. However, where they are available they come at a cost and in form of a bridging
programme taking a minimum of six months of study.
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no second chances. Under the new fee regime, students may become more risk averse and this
may damage social mobility if universities do not embed a credit transfer system.
8. Student Outcomes - From Education -to-Employment
8.1 The debate on the role of universities in advancing social mobility has tended to focus on issues
of access. The question of what happens to students once they leave university, and their ability
to succeed in their chosen career, is all too often ignored. That needs to change. Universities
have a clear responsibility both to be aware of how they are preparing students for the world of
work, and to provide students with the tools they need to succeed. Employers have a part to
play and, when it comes to making access to postgraduate education fairer, so too does
government.
8.2 Universities are increasingly recognising their role in preparing graduates for the labour market
once they finish higher education. In order to help formalise and clarify this responsibility, it will
be important for all universities, in addition to their Vision and Mission Statements to provide a
short employability statement, which is supposed to explain to students what action they are
taking to enhance employability prospects. The fact that most universities do not have records of
where their graduates end shows how less effort they are making in charting employability paths
for their graduates. This also means that there is, however, a long way to go before universities
are focusing sufficient attention on helping students to acquire the broad range of skills that are
nowadays needed to succeed in the professional labour market.
8.3 Some universities (three in Tanzania, three in Kenya and one in Rwanda) have developed strong
local partnerships with business to provide progression routes to higher- level apprenticeships,
to enhancing the skills of post-doctoral staff for their transition into the business world, and
some from improving enterprise skills amongst undergraduates, to enabling small companies to
recognise the value of employing a first graduate. These chances are very limited and constraint
by financing.
8.4 Discussions also suggests that employers are looking for a range of skills, which are developed
through academic study, work experience and extra-curricular activity. In other words, graduate
prospects rely on the overall student experience, not on academic credentials alone. Employers
are looking for candidates who demonstrate communication, team work and organisational
skills. Across the higher education sector, there is a growing consensus that universities have to
do more to prepare students for the workforce and not just support them to achieve a good
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degree. Some universities are already taking action to embed this type of holistic focus on the
development of skills and capabilities. However, there is no evidence of skills audits taken by any
of the universities visited, and even the private sectors in these countries, whereas they
complain about what comes out of the university, have not come up with a way to support the
universities to serve them better. It will be necessary for the private sector associations to
develop a skills audit framework to assist universities help students to identify areas for
development, and find ways to make use of the student experience to develop these skills.
8.5 Careers services are crucial in connecting students with work opportunities. Universities in the
region have structured their careers services in different ways depending on the nature of their
student population, their budget, and the employers they target. Some do not have these
services, for lack of foresight. It is important that all careers services are embedded across both
their local community and the university. One way in which careers services can embed
themselves in the local community is through collaboration with local enterprise partnerships.
Some universities are only look for partnerships with large corporation and forgetting that in the
East African region the small and medium enterprises are the ones pulling the economies.
8.6 While universities need to play a part, so too do employers. Even if universities across the board
make great progress on developing the employability of their students, the students will only
benefit if they are considered by employers. It is therefore important that the employers come
up with a joint programme with universities to ensure effective integration of students, and the
embedment of employability in the university training and research programmes.
8.7 Finally, one area of particular concern relating to undergraduate outcomes, which was raised
repeatedly by universities, was the opportunity students have to move on to postgraduate
study. Postgraduate education contributes enormously to any economy. In addition, there are
social and cultural benefits attached to a strong postgraduate sector, not least the fact that it
promotes a culture of open and intelligent debate, which in turn stimulates innovation.
9. The Role of Partner State Governments
9.1 While this Narrative has focused primarily on what universities can and should do to contribute
to human resource development, the right public policy framework is essential. Government
policy needs to be evaluated as a whole, based on the evidence of what outcomes it has
achieved.
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9.2 Secondly, employing the Higher education qualifications framework, as we have seen demands a
lot of investment in human resource, infrastructure, regulatory systems and in awareness
raising. This is not a mean task, and cannot be achieved in a one shot,
9.3 Government at all levels plays an important role in helping organizations find knowledgeable,
skilled workers; helping individuals access the training and education they need to get a job; and
assisting industries through funding and by setting policies for partnerships to develop the skills
of the current and future workforce.
1.1 Rwanda has engaged a model called Workforce Development modelled on the US OneStop
Office. To more effectively assist individuals and organizations to narrow the skills gaps, the
public workforce system can provide more guidance in navigating complex training programs
and policies. This can be achieved by simplifying the steps to access the public workforce
investment system and by increasing awareness about the services available to workers (both
incumbent and dislocated individuals) and organizations. Here are several options:





Link economic development, education, and workforce development more closely, and
directly tie their programs and services to the needs of employees.
Public policy makers in the Partner States should examine the possibility of establishing
Workforce Investment frameworks, by legislating better local representation by the
education, economic, and workforce development communities, and by providing greater
flexibility in allocating national training funds to target national priority sector and skills areas.
Government agencies should simplify and standardize processes for accessing public sector
training funds so that stakeholders can navigate them more easily, and better coordinate
their use of its training programs.
Public policy makers should provide support to organizations and individuals for lifelong
learning through training tax credits, education savings accounts, and tuition assistance.
Educational institutions at all levels should continue to development partnerships with
employers to advise on the skill needs for their students.
1.2 With all of these partners helping, individuals can obtain the skills they need for engaging,
challenging, and well-paid work, while fulfilling their responsibilities to further their
development. By connecting to and partnering with all levels of government and accessing
training resources, organizations benefit by attracting skilled, knowledgeable, and adaptable
workers.
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PART TWO
COUNTRY CASE (SITUTIONAL) REPORTS
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Situational Report Burundi
Mohammed Kerre, Charles Kitima, & Frederic Bingirinama
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I.
2014
Introduction
This interim report synthesizes published works and key respondent interviews on human resource
needs and higher education qualifications systems and structures in Burundi. This exercise was carried
out between December 1 and December 7 2013. General observation during the exercise was that the
lives of the Burundians have greatly improved over the last ten years, and particularly over the period
of joining the East African Community (EAC) as a Partner State. The next ten years will even be better
because Burundi is now open to bigger and wider economic and social space, benefiting from regional
infrastructure, both soft and hard.
The Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community commits Partner States, who include
Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda, to balanced and harmonious growth, equitable
distribution of benefits and a people-centered, market-driven regional integration process in line with
its rallying call 'One People, One Destiny'. The thread running through this to knit it into fine texture is
education and training. Education is the single most effective agent of transformation. A country
develops by opening up space, education is the tool that makes this possible. However, according to
the recently released State of East Africa 20136, Burundi is the least unequal country in East Africa
followed by Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Rwanda.
A formal wage paying job is seen as a privilege for only 4% of the working population in Burundi
compared to 5% in Tanzania and 6% in Kenya, due to its thin industrial base, declining agriculture
sector and growing population. In addition, the Burundi minimum wages of USD 3.0 are way far
below the country's poverty line (USD 12) and wages across the EAC region (Uganda USD 81, Tanzania
USD 84, Rwanda USD 176). In addition, Burundi has a very thin private sector with 3,000 small and
medium firms employing less than 30,000 persons, both foreign and nationals representing just below
2 percent of the working population7.
More resumes are getting trashed because employers just aren't finding the right candidates. Almost
half the open positions in Burundi are either completely new or are jobs with newly added duties that
place a greater emphasis on applied skills, as indicated during our recent review of academia, public
6
The State of East Africa 2013: One People, One Destiny? The Future of Inequality in East Africa. Society for International Development
(SID), Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya
7
The Chief Executive Federation of Commerce
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and private sector organisations8. About two-thirds of organizations in Burundi that are hiring report
difficulty recruiting and half of those say job applicants don’t have the right skills for the job 9.
Recruiting difficulty may be here to stay for the foreseeable future. High-skilled jobs — nurses,
doctors, engineers, programmers and scientists — are the most difficult to fill, and will continue to be
in the foreseeable future. This is made worse by the shrinking public sector unable to provide
employment to growing number of graduates form middle and higher education levels, a stagnating
agriculture sector which is forcing youth and women into migration to urban areas, and manufacturing
sector not strong enough to generate decent jobs to absorb growing pool of higher education
graduates. Of all the formal jobs created over the last three years (1,825) 50% were in the services
sector. The majority jobs (8,500) were in the informal sector - artisan production and processing,
eateries, hawking of merchandise, etc.
A serious skills deficit in Burundi constrains its people from taking advantage of the economic
opportunities available to them. Firms report that if they could find employees with the right skills
they could add over 20 percent more jobs. Yet only about 11.6 percent of 15–24 year old Burundians
are meaningfully employed10, while over 40 percent of youth are inactive11. The working age
population will increase by 45 percent in the next decade, and seven out of every ten Burundians are
under 2912.While constraints on economic growth are broader than skills alone, new growth
opportunities will be accessible for more Burundians if the skills needed to explore them are built in
the growing youthful population. Education and training programmes must seek to go beyond passing
of examinations to transfer of knowledge and inculcating skills.
Burundi recognise the skills challenge and have initiated important policies and programmes to
address this constraint on growth. Actions across the full range of life transitions from early childhood
to labour force matching are needed to close the skills gap. The Government of Burundi can build on
current initiatives, turn concepts into implementation and action, and develop new partnerships
across sectors that create opportunities benefiting rural populations, women and youth, and plan for
further growth opportunities and demand for labour overseas13 within the frameworks of the East
8Kerre,
Mohammed, Stock-Taking of Academia-Private Sector Partnership in East Africa: Keeping Our Promise - Knowledge Utilisation,
Collaboration and Learning for Sustainable Development, IUCEA-EABC, 2013
9
Cited by the Chief Executive of the Burundi Federation of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture.
10
This category include those 'Not working', AND 'actively looking for employment' (including subsistence activities). However, figures
vary greatly as per discussion)
11 'Inactive in the labour market' is defined as those who are not in school, not working, and not looking for a job. This includes the truly
inactive, those active in nonmarket activities, and other reasons.
12 UNDP Burundi Report, 2008
13 World Bank, Remittances Data, 2011
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African Community, the Great Lakes, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and
the African Union (AU).
II.
The Burundi Education System
Burundi has an education system that is divided into three main levels (primary, secondary and higher
education) guided by the Constitution and Vision Burundi 2025 and beyond, and has a high level
behavioral content. The education system is the focus of far-reaching reforms in order to adapt it to
emerging needs and requirements of Burundi’s development. It is in this respect that the government
has adopted the Bologna14 system for its secondary school education, and it is implementing a credit
system for its university education15. However, this development has not been developed into a
national skills development strategy, although the government of Burundi is keen on ensuring highlevel training in the scientific and technological fields commensurate with the emerging priorities of
the country. This, though, is being done through short-term fluid strategies. This obsession with shortterm performance comes at the detriment of long-term value creation. Therefore, Burundi must take
a longer-term view, and countries that take this direction ultimately succeed when they create
customer value, which drives national returns.
Pillar 2 (Human Capital) of the Vision Burundi 2025 seeks to provide a quality of better life for the
population on the one hand and to count on a population that is educated and enjoying a good health
on the other hand. The philosophy behind this is that human beings simultaneously benefit from and
have a stake in their own development. Therefore, education in Burundi has the objective of training a
human being who is deeply rooted in his culture and environment, aware of his political and civic
responsibilities as well as his duties towards the state and the family, ready to play a role as a
producer and a citizen in the economic and social development of the community. In this respect
Vision Burundi 2025 seeks to promote a quality education system through the implementation of a
policy, which aims at the development of a well-educated population.
The expression in policy and education philosophy cannot be said to manifest itself in the actual
provision of education at all levels of learning. A number of political challenges have also affected the
evolution, growth and development of the education system and its contribution to national
development.
14
15
The credit system is in its second year of implementation, with professional bachelors programs being output based. In this system the
Bachelors degree has 180 credits while a Master degree has 120 credits
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
First the national political leadership, including those charged with resource allocation have
affected the process of longer-term strategy development for education and clear priority setting
of key education activities and indicators. National political leadership and managers seem to
have little ability to focus on the core objectives of national development through higher
education and learning. Political leadership and education management seem to be focused on
short-term results in the education sector hindering the strategic planning of critical education
activities, follow-up financing and the early start-up of loner-term education management and
development programmes. This lack of proper government articulation and prioritization has
resulted in buy-ins in the education sector implementing projects individually, spreading out
thinly, and taking advantage of the governance system to avoid the basic tenets of education
quality and qualifications, limiting the role and impact of higher education to the national
development of Burundi.

In the process of advancing a narrow and short-term vision of higher education, learners and the
nation are getting only a small share of the full value of education that the education landscape in
the country can provide. This narrow focus and short-term vision may also only help to leave out
the nation's and education institutions' vulnerability to new entrants and agile incumbents that
can translate operational improvements in education across the full value chain, combined with
innovative learning models, into better, cheaper, more customized products, faster service, and an
improved customer experience. Burundi needs to step back and apply its investment in such a
holistic way in order to transform and redirect education to the transformational and growth
needs of society.

Education development in Burundi is likely to touch on the highly politicized issues such as
economic inequality. Poverty is highly politicized to the scale of dwarfing the value of quality
education, presenting problems for any larger-scale and longer-term reforms in the education
system. In addition, the population for female students in public universities is much lower than in
private universities. This also suggests that women have problems accessing public institutions and
financing at higher education levels, limiting their access to mathematics, science and engineering
programs.

Lack of capacity continues to limit the effectiveness of the Burundi education system. A number of
properly educated professionals continue to serve outside the country16, leaving a handful to toil
16
Most of the needed professionals are still serving in Belgium, France, the Netherlands and Rwanda.
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with the development of the country17to the extent that leading professionals are forced to spread
thin and this affects productivity at individual and national levels.

The higher education landscape has grown very first over the last ten years from one (1) public
university to seven (7) and from one (1) private university to twenty three (23). This has been
influenced more by the “free primary education for all” policy, which forced the net enrolment
rate from 53% in 1990 to 90% in 2009 and 93% by 2011, and flooding the market with higher
education going youths. This saw emergence of private universities, most of them are about six to
ten years old now, and proving access to regular training and education. Both the Government
(Office of the Permanent Secretary Higher Education and the Commission for Higher Education)
and the universities (both private and public) are in agreement that in some instances education
quality has been compromised with the drive for enrolment in private universities, and lack of
resources for public universities (financial, human and infrastructure) to meet the required
professional and technical quality that higher education divines.
The difficulties in terms of strategy development, as a result of the local political developments and
low capacity have led to what we may, for lack of appropriate word, "life-saving" education activities
not adequate to make the required transformational change in the education system. Positive
leadership, conveys the idea that growth and development is a product of a dynamic education
system built on knowledge, skills, competences and outcomes. Knowledge and understanding,
represents what would have been missed opportunities to gain maximum advantage from investment
in education and learning. Critical to doing this the reinforcement of the idea of quality assurance in
the education system - when people feel accountable, assured and confident, it is more rewarding.
When used well, long-term and larger scale education strategies expand the improvements delivered
in one part of an institution across the whole value chain education system and the labour market.
The government, though constraint, has developed a number of policies, regulatory frameworks and
created a number of institutions to ensure the education system is strong and focused on the future
of the country. Recently it has attempted to bring the private sector on board. This collaboration with
the private sector is intended to build confidence in the education system, develop a joint approach to
education development, and ensure quality and sustainability. However, because of the weak
resource base on the side of the government, and the small private sector, the development of this
partnership has been very slow and might take low to mature and to translate into the value chain
education system desired by the country.
17
To the extent that leading professionals with Master and Doctorate qualifications are forced to hold more than one job in the public
service, at the same time teaching at the public universities and or other government agencies
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Finally Burundi has free education from early childhood to university in all public institutions. The
rationale for this is that the Burundi people are poor and not able to meet cost of education for their
children. This tends to breed laxity and lack of responsibility and accountability - the students tend to
learn because it is free not because it's their right. The rationale for free, especially higher education
in Burundi should be based, among other things, on the country’s desire to create highly trained
manpower that could transform and grow the economy of the country.
III.
The Emerging Situation
There has been a significant shift over the last decade from agriculture to services, especially tourism
(hotel and eatery), and information and knowledge services, in Burundi. This is not unique to Burundi.
Globally, knowledge itself is growing ever more specialized and expanding exponentially. Information
and communication technology is transforming how we learn and the nature of how work is
conducted and the meaning of social relationships. Shared decision-making, information sharing,
collaboration, innovation, and speed are essential in today’s enterprises. No longer can students look
forward to middle class success in the conduct of manual labor or use of routine skills – work that can
be accomplished by machines or easily out-sourced to less expensive labor markets. Today, much
success lies in being able to communicate, share, and use information to solve complex problems, in
being able to adapt and innovate in response to new demands and changing circumstances, in being
able to command and expand the power of technology to create new knowledge.
Hence, new standards for what students should be able to do are replacing the basic skill
competencies and knowledge expectations of the past. To meet this challenge the education and
training system must be transformed in ways that will enable students to acquire new and dynamic
skills - creative thinking, flexible problem solving, collaboration and innovative skills they will need to
be successful in work and life. Critical thinking was ranked as the most problematic gap among applied
skills, followed by professionalism/work ethic, written and spoken communications(English) and
leadership.
As indicated by the Ministry of Public Services and the Chamber of Commerce, Industry and
Agriculture, many employers are trying to identify ways to solve the skills gap. Some creative ideas are
being tested; however, with poor political will, more coordinate efforts are required to first change
the national mind-set on education and training in national development, education financing, and
linking education to industry. Leadership shall be provided by government because as in education as
a public good the value at stake from government and regulatory intervention is huge. For a long time,
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and even now the Government of Burundi has universal free education from kindergarten to
University. Even with its policy of universal education at all levels, Burundi and Tanzania lag behind the
other EAC Partner States in quality of education provided by their higher education system. To contain
this situation Burundi has recently adopted a higher education system similar to the other four
partner states, which it has christened BMD - Bachelors, Master and Doctorate at university level, and
backed it up with the introduction of Bologna-like system, clearing the way towards a harmonised
education system with comparable quality assurance practices and qualifications at the regional and
international levels.
As has been observed by the World Bank (2012), the quality of math and science education is an early
indicator of the future quality of a country’s skills base and human capital. Tanzania and Burundi have
in the past fared poorly in the quality of math and science education compared to Rwanda, Kenya and
Uganda. A review by the World Bank in 2013, shows that except for Rwanda, all East African countries
are in the bottom half of the global rankings in mathematics and science education, with Burundi
standing at 112 out of 144 countries ranked, and Tanzania coming 122 out of 144 countries.
Quality of Mathematics and Science education in East Africa 2011-2013
Country
2013 Quality of Math and 2011 Quality of Math and
Science Education Rank/144
Science Education Rank/144
Rwanda
62
Kenya
76
63
Uganda
109
101
Burundi
112
109
Tanzania
122
126
Source: World Economic Forum Network Readiness Index (2012)
The table above goes against what is in the political domain, where each state is striving to realize
skill- and knowledge-based innovation and build a strong knowledge society18. This it is argued by
employers and students to be more rhetoric. Whereas, Burundi requires more higher education
institutions, these must be properly regulated, discriminatively accredited (not by agreement), and
well targeted to suite the social and economic landscape of Burundi. Therefore, it is proper to start
sector-specific workforce and education programs that link the training of participants to the needs of
employers as a key component of the new higher education institutions' mandate, and probably the
best attempt to address the gap. In addition:
18
As enumerated in each country's Vision document (Burundi 2025, Kenya 2030, Rwanda 2020, Tanzania 2025 and Uganda
)
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
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Burundi may consider the concept of community colleges along with its evolving business and
vocational education technical programmes
It will be important to keep businesses and educators on the same page through establishment
and strengthening of development advisory councils with business and employers. This has
already been tested by the Ministry of Education and the National Higher Education
Commission and it works. This is important because it allows the employers and businesses to
be at the table with all their higher education institutions in order to be in a strong
relationship/position to leverage training and education.
Many businesses and employers in Burundi do not consider education and training to be their
responsibility and look to education institutions and government to develop the work–ready recruits
they need for business success. However, where employers are involved in education, they are often
influenced by government policy rather than setting the agenda themselves. However, in the Burundi
situation today, there’s so much money on the table, you might assume that employers, particularly
the private sector, would organize government relations as carefully as they do other business
functions to leverage education and training. Surely, for example, companies have people in place to
understand the relevant economics, structures, and processes to drive this understanding into
important business activities, and regulatory-affairs professionals who work in a collaborative and
integrated fashion with business-unit leaders to capture value - the key that defines productivity that
comes with appropriate knowledge and skills. By contrast, more sophisticated companies (only about
six in the whole country) appear to view the relationship between the businesses and the
Government-affairs function as a two way street. An international financial institution, for example,
integrates regulatory skills into the training that every management and technical staff receives upon
promotion. Similarly, the two brewers and the tobacco company hold regular training for their
marketing and sales personnel to keep their engagement skills sharp and relevant.
It is in order to clarify that what the industry seeks are not just skills but the process of increasing the
knowledge, the skills and the capacities of all the people in a society. In economic terms it could be
described as the accumulation of human capital and its effective investment in development of an
economy. In political terms, this should prepare the people of Burundi for adult participation in
political processes, particularly as citizens in a democracy. From the social and cultural points of view,
the development of skills (human resource) in this context (formal education, non-formal education
and self-development education) helps people to lead fuller and richer lives, less bound by tradition.
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Lessons and Recommendations
The private sector believes that the universities in Burundi are not meant for them - they are 90%
theory and 5% practical and 5% professional19, yet the sector's focus is productivity and innovation.
This makes it difficult for the graduates to be meaningfully absorbed by the labour market, creating a
skills gap that threatens the sustainability and stability of the Burundi economy.
While a big part of the skills gap is a shortage of people skilled in science, technology, education and
mathematics industries, there is also:
a) a gap in soft skills such as communication and advanced leadership skills; and
b) a weak economy that cannot absorb all graduates being produced
Education to employment to talent creation system - from first grade through college through career
training needs to be re-examined in light of today's technologically advancing world and rush for
entrepreneurial occupations. The population does not have the liberal arts and thinking skills and
specific career training for this dynamic situation. Burundi needs the skills to keep this very complex
technology working. This includes developing a strong force of artisans, craftsmen, technicians,
technologists, engineers and scientists, medical technologists, doctors, economists and teachers.
Burundi needs people to build the economy, keep street lights working, fix high tech cars and
plumbing systems and teach kids writing skills.
If the situation does not change, come 2025 there will be 0.5 million vacant jobs Burundi won't be able
to fill. The challenge will then not be a skills problem, but a talent issue20. Burundi will be forced to
continually look internationally to feed the increasing demand for a highly skilled workforce. In less
than five years smart phones have become ingrained in business and society, revolutionizing the way
people communicate and transforming consumer habits and the way companies operate. Science,
technology, engineering and mathematics skills need to play a bigger role in Burundi's education
curriculum at all grade levels, and professionals must make continuing education opportunities a
priority to stay informed on the latest technical advances.
To manage this situation it is imperative that Burundi moves to align its human resource development
strategy and workforce development with Burundi Vision 2030. Based on Burundi Vision 2030, the
government must forecast the skills that will be necessary in the near term and long-term future. To
19
20
Observation made by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry Chief Executive Officer
You can have all the latest technology you want but if you do not have the talent behind it, it will be difficult to sustain the economy.
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do this it must carry out a skills gap analysis/a manpower survey21 (including current skills, the age of
the current workforce, etc) and prepare a workforce development strategy to be implemented by all
critical sectors to human resource development - the state, academia and labour market (the
employers). The implementation of this strategy should be within the current understanding of
education development, technology and innovation and human resource development, because of
educational institutions, employers and the state, and individuals are not keeping up with the changes
that are unfolding, workforce will be left behind. Therefore Burundi has to embrace the fact that the
dynamics of society have changed from strong boundaries between separate institutional spheres and
organizations to a more flexible overlapping system, with each actor taking the role of the other. This
dynamism has redefined the role of:
(a) The academia from that of just a provider of education, training, research and technology to that
of a creator of firms/enterprises through innovation incubator facilities, and centres of excellence
for innovation and entrepreneurship development;
(b) Industry as an educator and trainer, whose entry into the education and training sphere is to be
based on structured internships and fellowships22, academia/industry personnel exchange
programmes, and the creation of professorial chairs, and not just supplier of goods and services.
The industry must go out of its way and get involved directly in workforce development by taking
a proactive stance to develop the future leadership pipeline by partnering with educational
institutions or community youth organisations to help them resource leadership opportunities;
and
(c) The State as the venture capitalist through which (i) innovative financing programs, and (ii)
creation of supportive environment are made available for the sustainable growth of
collaborative research and development among firms, universities and national laboratories to
address issues of national competitiveness and not just the guardian of political will.
The importance of this partnership in the education system suggests that activities related to human
resource development possess tremendous opportunities for wealth creation and employment
generation and drive national socio-economic planning and development.
21
This should help determine what steps should be taken to ensure the workforce that is required for the future: how many, what skills, do they exist, will
we have to make them through our training investment?
22 Developing strong internships and fellowships can help develop skills early on in the hiring process. Partnership with the academia (local colleges and
schools) to start recruiting future employees helps to build employer brands - gives back to the local schools and communities, with tome to bring
career relevance to teaching and research.
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What Direction for Burundi?
From the foregoing, it is suggested that the Government of Burundi should create a national skills
development strategy whose goal should be that sufficient Burundians with the required skills and
attitudes are available to satisfy local and international labour market demand. The objective should
be to ensure that the education and training system supports economic and social development by
systematically meeting the needs and requirements of the local and international labour markets. In
this strategy employers and business have an essential role to play in setting standards for training
and education so that young people can develop high quality, relevant skills that will enable them to
make positive contribution to the success of their county, society and economy.
The approach to the realization of this goal should be Burundi's transition from 'education as usual'
and manpower planning for public service, to flexible skills strategising. As a colonial relic, manpower
planning was undertaken to prevent worker shortages and expand economic growth. However the
approach assumes an inflexible labour market and stable economic and technological structures in
which precise manpower numbers can be calculated. It also assumes that Burundi can ‘pick winners’
among industries. Few countries have done this successfully. Today’s economy is one of rapid change.
It is more difficult to predict the rapidly shifting needs of private sector demand 23. It is therefore
important instead to complement broad skills planning with flexible, responsive, demand-led
frameworks that quickly and accurately transmit market signals to people seeking to build their skills,
such as the area, quality and configuration of technical competencies needed to gain employment.
The new direction should also be a strategic response to the mismatch between skills supplied and
current demand from employers, and focus on demand, private-sector participation, implementation
readiness, and use of existing resources24. It should provide policy directions to reconfigure the
training supply system into a demand-responsive system, in which decisions on education and
training, such as budget, policies, programmes, curricula, and training, are driven by medium and
long-term development priorities, and link into present and future needs of the country.
The proposed direction should also add analysis and recommendations particularly for building jobrelevant skills, supporting entrepreneurship and innovation, and in particular to support the labour
market to better match supply with demand. National planners need to address the broad system in
which training takes place: in formal and non-formal training institutions and work places.
23
Wang, Y., Education in a Changing World: Flexibility, Skills and Employability, World Bank, 2012
Burundi has its top brains in the cities of Europe, brains that should be encouraged to contribute to national development. In addition,
this study learnt that the country has not taken advantage of what the current private sector and other stakeholders to the education
system could offer
24
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Accreditation and other systems need to be further developed and implemented to ensure the quality
and relevance of education and training provided formally or informally, including on-the-job
apprenticeships.
The government should support and acknowledge private sector involvement in planning, employerbased training, and preparation for international labour migration. Alternative pathways are a priority
for employment and production skills for those outside formal education and training, including
community-based, enterprise based and ‘second chance’ education. A priority is the reform of
practices which reduce, restrict or disincentivise the demand for local labour, or the acquisition or
application of skills.
To maximises inputs and services from existing ministries, project groups, stakeholders and service
organisations, the Government should show commitment and participation of a range of government
agencies, and strong private sector participation, and full implementation by stakeholders to start
turning the supply of labour to meet demand. In implementing the a new direction in the Burundi
Education Master Plan, the Ministry of Higher Education has a central coordinating role with multiple
stakeholders, and the need for strong private sector participation.
It is possible to discern nine key components of the national skills development strategy
1. Firstly, strengthening cross-sector planning and coordination including the establishment of the
National Workforce Development and Training Council as the advisory body analysing demand and
recommending human resource development priorities.
2. Secondly, developing an evidence-based system to identify priority skill development areas that
can be met through local education and training and scholarships. Development of information
collection and analysis systems would include all economic sectors, public and private,
international, national and provincial, to provide a coherent, reliable basis for the identification of
priorities. Much of the data and information resources already exist in government ministries,
departments and agencies (MDAs), and could be supported by specialist technical expertise. Once
the training and human resource development priorities are identified through a transparent
process and they are endorsed by stakeholders, the National Workforce Development and
Training Council would monitor responsiveness of training supplied by providers.
3. Thirdly, key mechanisms and actions are proposed to make the education and training system
more responsive to labour demand. This includes defining standards for training based on skills’
outcomes achieved, not only length of training, with industry-led definition of outcome descriptors
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and alignment of assessment systems. A post-scholarship transition programme could facilitate
scholarship holders into employment. Continued curriculum reform and development of a
National Qualifications Framework (NQF) can help integrate the ‘soft skills’ that employers say
they need. Supplementing training courses with practical demonstration or recognition of prior
learning supports clear definition of outcome standards. Quality assurance systems for all
government/donor-funded post-school trainings can ensure compliance with standards. A student
loan scheme to finance study or targeted grants for poor students would help expand access and
opportunities to those currently disadvantaged.
4. Improved scholarship support and supervision systems would ensure that Burundi's major
investment in tertiary scholarships leads to better economic and employment outcomes, as it
moves to 'per-student' funding instead of 'per-qualification' funding to make institutions more
accountable to learners. Locally-based tertiary training by the 30 universities will also help widen
access and reduce costs of training. Purchasing and competitive tendering arrangements by
ministries and donors from public and private training providers would help shift focus from
investment in fixed infrastructure and staff (input costs) toward increased supply efficiency,
reduced cost, and improved outcomes.
5. Workplace-based training would support on-going skills acquisition even when workers are not
able to return to institutional training, and at lower cost. Policy options would be considered to
encourage or require employers to provide workplace training or pay a training levy as an
alternative. Pathways for semi-formal and non-formal training would include more people in skills
recognition, and motivate acquisition of relevant skills, including through mechanisms within the
NQF for achievement to be recognised and progress scaffold for non-formal and second chance
education. Importantly, such programmes would integrate substantive national efforts to increase
functional literacy for those who have not gained it and also extend provision of work experience.
6. Sixth is developing enterprise and skills to improve livelihoods in a context of limited formal job
creation. This recognises the need for entrepreneurial workers, and the need for labour force
participants to participate productively in self-employment and the informal sector. Enterprise
skills could be included in education and training curricula and qualifications, and relevant work
placements expanded with private sector consultation. Regular and business and technical
education training institutions could expand school-to-work transition preparation programmes to
include attitudes and behaviours. Inclusion of non-formal competency-based qualifications would
increase the pathways to gain skills.
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7. A national skills competition could promote occupational skills, choices and innovation.
Development of the right funding system formula would incentivise learning opportunities for
rural communities, youth and women. Rural area approaches including a feasibility study of
livelihood skills programmes at village level, such as community-identified training, mobile
technical vocational education and training (TVET) delivery, and links to rural training centres and
community-based training centres, could expand education opportunities for the rural majority,
enabling them to meet skills gaps at home or move to towns bringing job-relevant skills.
8. Eighth, identifying and developing labour opportunities overseas, matching skills supply with
demand, facilitating labour mobility and job matching at home and overseas will support the
orientation of skills supply systems to demand through improved information flow from the labour
market. Encouraging labour migration supported by skills development is a priority. According to
the recently conclude SID study on the State of East Africa 2013, Burundi with all the brain power
abroad seems to suggest emigrant remittances to its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) negligible
compared to Kenya and Uganda, which brought massive dollars from the diaspora population.
Expanding this opportunity for growth and welfare requires: removing barriers to Burundians
accessing foreign labour markets; improving the match of skills provision and foreign market
demands; expanding labour sending coordination capacity; and integrating market access
arrangements within regional trade agreements. Increasing migration opportunities for
Burundians are key contributions which the other Partner States of the EAC could make.
9. The strategy would also prioritize actions to increase access and participation by women in
education, training, and employment. One can witness more female students in private
universities today than public. Many women are currently involved in traditional activities and the
subsistence economy. The strategy would prioritize the participation of women in training in skills
to increase productivity and enhance rural, subsistence and non-formal livelihoods. A way to
achieve this is through a regime of incentives for women to participate in higher levels of formal
education and training, particularly in non-traditional occupations. A demand oriented human
resource development and training system would include a funding formula that incentivises
learning opportunities, and that would aim to increase the numbers of women participating in
public universities which are offering science and engineering programmes, TVET courses, and
enterprise-related courses. This would increase and motivate providers to seek greater enrolment
by women.
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References
1.
2.
3.
4.
African Development Bank, Burundi Country Stratgy Paper 2012-2016
Burundi, Revenue Cojointe du secteur de l'education, May 2013
Burundi, Layout of the Proposed EAC Qualifications Frameowrk, Proposal
CenAp, Challenges of Access to the Labour Market: What Alternatives are there for Burundian
Young People? Summary. In Partnership with Interpeace Bujumbura Burundi March 2010
5. Commission for Higher Education, Filiers de Formation Organisees par les institutions
d'enseignement superiuer, 2013
6. Higher Teacher Training School (ENS), Self-Assessment Report on the Biology Chemistry Training
Programme, Bujumbura July 2013
7. Leontine Specker, Ivan Briscoe and Jean Marie Gasana, Early Economic Recovery in Fragile States:
Case Study Burundi: Operational challenges, January 2010
8. Maquette de Cours por le Department de genie civil, 2012
9. Maquette des cours ULBU janvier 2013
10. Note De Synthese Et Recommandation, Revue Sectorielle Education, Groupe Thematique
Enseignement Superieur
11. OECD 2013, African Economic Outlook 2013
12. Universite du Burundi, Annuaires Statistiques 2010-2011 et 2011-2012
13. World Bank, Burundi 2013Index of Economic Freedom, 2013
List of Key Informants Responding
Government
1. Dr. Gaspard Banyankimbona, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research and Professor Department of Biology University of Burundi, Republic of Burundi
2. Dr. Sylvie Hatungimana, Permanent Executive Secretary, National Commission for Higher
Education and Professor of Physical Education University of Burundi
3. Dr. Pierre Claver Kazihise, Director General, Ministere de la Sante Publique et de la Lutte Contre le
sida
4. Alexine Hatungimana, Directeur de l' Enseignement Post-Secondaire Professionnel, Ministry of
Higher Education and Scientific Research
5. Prosper Nibasumba, Director of Recruitment, Ministry of Public Service
Higher Education Institutions
1. Venant Nyandwi, University of Burundi
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
2014
Bonane Justine, Chief of Staff Deputy Vice Chancellors Office, University of Burundi
Dr. Gerard Nkunzimana, Recteur Universite Lumiere de Bujumbura
Pie Ndayishimiye, Director of Academic Affairs, Universite Lumiere de Bujumbura
Dr. Nikobari Simeon Vice Rector, Hope Africa University, Bujumbura
Dr. Severin Dushimirimana, Director Quality Assurance Higher Teachers Training School (ENS)
Dr. Frederic Bangirinama, QA Coordinator in EAC, Academic Services Director and Lecturer BiologChemistry Section. Higher Teacher Training School (ENS)
Private Sector
1. Econie Nijimbere, President, Chambre Federale De Commerce Et D’Industrie du Burundi
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Situational Report
KENYA
Mohammed Kerre & Samuel Kachumbo
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2014
Introduction
Labour, human resource and manpower development constitute integral foundations for national
transformation. It is in this respect that the economic, social and political pillars of the Kenya Vision
2030 are anchored on existence of skilful, productive, competitive and adaptive human resource
base25. This also is in keeping with the recognition that the country's potential is in her people as
manifested in their creativity, education and entrepreneurial skills. And to crown this the Constitution
of Kenya26 identifies education as a social and economic right, confirming that education and
employability are the keys that can unlock both individual citizens’ and countries’ progress.
In addition to information obtained from key informants, this interim report has benefited from key
Government of Kenya policies contained in documents such as: the Report of the Kenya Education
Commission (1964), Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 on African Socialism and its Application to
Planning in Kenya, the Report of the Kericho Conference on Education Employment and Rural
Development (1966), The Education Act (1968), the Report of the National Committee on Education
Objectives and Policies (1976), the Report of the Presidential Working Party on Second University
(1981), the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1986 on Economic Management for Renewed Growth, the Report
of the Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and
Beyond (1988), the Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya (1999),
Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005, the Report of the Public Universities Inspection Board (2006), The TIVET
Curriculum Development Framework (TCDF) of 2010, the Universities Act Cap 210B of 2012, Sessional
Paper No 12 of 2012, Kenya Vision 2030 and the Kenya Constitution 2010.
II.
Kenya Education System
Education has been defined as the process through which knowledge, skills, attitudes and values are
imparted for the purpose of integrating the individual in a given society, or changing the values and
norms of a society. For individuals, this process is lifelong - it begins at birth and ends with death. The
UNESCO International standard classification of education defines education as comprising organized
and sustained communication designed to bring about learning (UNESCO, 1975). In Kenya, as in any
other country, this sustained communication is organized and managed through a coherent system
put in place by the Government through the ministry(ies) responsible for education, departments and
authorities (agencies) (MDA). The foundation of modern education was laid by missionaries who
25
Kenya Vision 2030: Fourth Annual Progress Report 2011-2012 on the Implementation of the First Medium Term Plan (2008-2012) of
Kenya Vision 2010, p xxix, Ministry of Devolution and Planning, May 2013.
26
As Promulgated in 2010
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introduced reading to spread Christianity. They also taught practical subjects like carpentry and
gardening which were useful around the missions. The Frazer report of 1909 recommended the
establishment of separate educational systems for Europeans, Asians and Africans. This system was
maintained until independence in 1963. Since then Kenya has made great strides in education and
training, and gone through three phases of education evolution and development.



First Phase (1963-1980), preceding independence witnessed joint effort by government and
community to expand education at all levels.
Second Phase (1980-2002) saw structural reforms leading to the 8-4-4 system to vocationalise
the curriculum for self-reliance and national development.
Third Phase started in 2003 with policy initiatives (Education for All, Millennium Development
Goals) designed to meet international obligations, culminating in Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005
on Policy Framework on Education Training and Research. In the process of realizing the
objects of these programmes Kenya has not been able to sustain technical and vocational
education training. To counter this, the education sector development program (2012) was
launched to undertake policy, legal and regulatory reforms aimed at aligning the sector to the
Constitution (2010) and Vision 2030 and international commitments. These reforms have
necessitated increased investment in order to expand access and equity in education; improve
quality, transition and relevance; and integrate science and technology in the production
sectors of the economy as well as addressing human capital needs of the nation.
Available data27 suggests that at least 26.9 million Kenyans (63.9% of the population) of age 3 and
above have completed known education level ranging from early childhood education (3.6 million),
primary school education (17.0 million), secondary education (6.0 million) and university education
(0.34million). Of these women make 49.6%. Still, the government believes more must be done to
realize the objectives of Kenya Vision 2030. In this respect four major tasks must be undertaken: (i)
Increase Enrolment in Higher Education, (ii) Increase Opportunities for relevant degree courses, (iii)
increase opportunities and access to continuing Education, and finally (iv) provide opportunities for
women education in science and engineering. This has, in a way, informed the new policy direction
articulated in Sessional Paper No 12 of 2012: Reforming Education and Training in Kenya (2013), which
also provides for development and implementation of a national qualifications framework for Kenya.
Education Philosophy
27
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Abstract 2012: Highest Level of Education Completed
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Kenya does not have a shared view of a national education philosophy. However, a number of public
documents have suggest different themes this, the most recent being Sessional Paper No 12 of 2012.
The lack of this has affected education and training reforms; design and development of education
programmes; delivery of education and training programmes including assessment and examination
of students and learners; management of education research and development; and the relationships
between the academia and the labor market. This scenario may suggest, among other reasons why
Kenya has been unable to come out of poverty, and why wealth is concentrated in a few hands.
The Kenya education sector envisions “a globally competitive education, training, research and
innovation for sustainable development”. Sessional Paper No 12 (2012). The Sessional Paper seeks to
define a national education philosophy as that which places education at the centre-stage of the
country's human and economic development strategies. It focuses on the acquisition of knowledge
and skills as well as provision of lifelong learning, and the development of individual potential in a
holistic and integrated manner while:
a) producing individuals who are intellectually, emotionally and physically balanced;
b) promoting the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains of learners; and
c) instilling values such as patriotism, equality, honesty, humility, mutual respect, and high moral
standards.
Although this has found its way into the Sessional Paper it still needs to be widely shared,
interrogated, embraced and owned. A national philosophy should be simple, easily understood and
promoted, and carried by all, not just the elite sections of the community. The philosophy should also
seek to provide a long-term solution to the country's known and unknown challenges. In this case, it
should in addition to responding to Kenya Vision 2030, also address the society in posterity. This is
probably why the Sessional Paper includes such guiding principles which include to :
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Affirm and enhance patriotism, national unity, mutual social responsibility and the ethical and
moral foundation of our society.
Provide education that has open door and alternative systems of entry to ensure opportunities
for continuous learning;
Emphasize quality; equity, access and relevance in education services;
Prioritize science, technology and innovation;
Focus on entrepreneurship, agricultural and industrial development;
Identify and nurture learners‟ talents and gifts.
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Kenya Vision 2030, on its part, articulates the development of a middle income country in which all
citizens will have embraced entrepreneurship; engage in lifelong learning; learn new things quickly;
perform more non-routine tasks; be capable of more complex problem-solving; willing and able to
take more decisions and responsibilities; understand more about what they are working on and
require less supervision; and have better reading, quantitative, reasoning and expository skills.
Education Landscape
In 1981, a Presidential Working Party was commissioned to examine curriculum reform of the entire
education system in the country. The committee submitted a recommendation to change the 7-4-2-3
education system to the current 8-4-4 system of education, whose overall structure was similar to the
U.S. education system. The 8-4-4 system was launched in January 1985, and was designed to provide
eight years of primary education, four years of secondary, and four years of university education.
Emphasis was placed on Mathematics, English, and vocational subjects. The focus on vocational
education was aimed at providing the youth with an alternative pathway by preparing those who
would not continue on with secondary education, those who would be self-employed, and those who
would be seeking employment in the non-formal sector to be adequately equipped for these
challenges. However, the implementation of this scheme has been bogged down in the old school.
Primary school is the first phase of the 8-4-4 education system and serves students between the ages
of 6-14 years. The main purpose of primary education is to prepare students to participate in the
social, political and economic well being of the country, and prepare them to be global citizens
("Education Info Center," 2006). The new primary school curriculum has therefore been designed to
provide a more functional and practical education to cater to the needs of children who complete
their education at the primary school level and also for those who wish to continue with secondary
education. In addition it caters to students who wish, and have the means, to continue on with
secondary school education. Primary education is universal and free but not compulsory. A major goal
of primary education is to develop self-expression, self-discipline, and self-reliance, while at the same
time providing a rounded educational experience.
At the end of the eighth year, the Kenya Certificate of Primary Examination (K.C.P.E.) is taken and the
results are used to determine placement at secondary school on a merit basis. K.C.P.E. candidates are
examined in five subjects including subjects: (1) Kiswahili; (2) English; (3) Mathematics; (4) Science and
Agriculture, and (5) Social studies. (Education Info Center, 2006; Ministry of Education, 2008).
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Prior to 2003 only about 50% of all children enrolling in standard one got a chance to sit for KCPE
because of school fees and other requirements. The introduction of free primary education in 2003
resulted in a significant increase in enrollment from 5.9 to 7.2 million pupils in primary school.
Whereas this looked good it came with heavy capacity requirements for the schools in terms of space,
number of teachers, equipment, furniture and fixtures, and other learning resources. Ironically, the
introduction of free primary education has led to a dramatic increase in the number of privately
owned and operated schools. These schools target families who can afford to pay school fees and
have their children taught in small groups.
Secondary school education, which takes four years of study, begins around the age of fourteen, and
is aimed at meeting the needs of the students who terminate their education after secondary school
and also those who proceed onto tertiary education . Due to delayed primary school entry and limited
educational schools and facilities, many students especially those from rural areas experience late
admission into the education system.
The required secondary School subjects are categorized into five groups as follows:





Group 1: English, Mathematics, and Kiswahili;
Group 2: Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Physical Sciences, and Biological Sciences;
Group 3: History and Government, Geography, Christian Religious Education, Islamic Religious
Education, Social Studies and Ethics, and Hindu Islamic Education;
Group 4: Home Science, Art and Design, Agriculture, Woodwork, Metalwork, Building
Construction, Power Mechanics, Electricity, Drawing and Design, and Aviation Technology; and
Group 5: French, German, Arabic, Music, Accounting, Commerce, Economics, Typewriting and
Office Practice.
Students are required to take all three subjects in Group 1 and at least two subjects from Group, and
select subjects in the other three remaining area, dependent upon what each of the individual schools
offers. At the end of the fourth year in secondary school, the Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Examination (K.C.S.E.) is taken in the mandatory and elective subjects in preparation for tertiary and
higher education. The average grade is based on performance in the seven subjects. Where a
candidate sits for more than seven subjects, the average grade is based on the best seven subjects.
University admission is based on the best seven subjects and performance in particular subjects
relevant to the degree courses the candidate proposes to pursue.
KCSE Grading System
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Grade
Points
A
12
A11
B+
10
B
09
B08
C+
07
C
06
C05
D+
04
D
03
D02
2014
E
01
In addition to adding technical courses at the primary and secondary school level, vocational
education has been a focus of the education system. The Government has developed and it is
implementing a national strategy for technical and vocational education and training aimed at the
rehabilitation of physical facilities and equipment and ensuring that vocational and technical
institutions are appropriately equipped offer certificate and diploma programs in various fields
including artisan trades, craftsmanship, engineering, medical sciences, nursing, education, computer
science, mass communication, tourism, and business.
Higher Education Infrastructure
Higher education comprises of all that education and training offered in the highest institutions of
learning (universities) leading to the award of degrees and post graduate qualifications (Sessional
Paper, 2012). For students who go on to higher education in Kenya, there are thirty nine universities
with full charter (22 public and 17 private) with 14 constituent colleges. The establishment of new
university colleges and campuses has contributed to tremendous growth in access in the last 10 years
from 112,229 (68,345 male and 43,884 female) in 2006 to slightly over 200,000 (123,303 male and
77,698 female) in 2013. In addition, the different modules adopted to widen opportunities to access
have also contributed to this growth. However, questions are now being asked as to whether Kenya
should allow more universities to be created or to consolidate what it has now to address quality,
access and focus. In addition suggestions are being made that any new universities and programs
should only be allowed if they complement or add value to existing ones28.
Kenya boasts as a regional leader for the quality and diversity of its universities, with seven of its
universities among the 100 top ranked universities in Africa. It is the favoured destination for
international students. The country has strength in depth, with 86 higher education institutions of
which 39 are universities. There are also a significant number of further education colleges at which
higher education is taught. All universities undertake research and teaching, and are actively
contributing towards their communities. Yet the balance of these activities, as well as how they are
achieved and articulated, varies enormously. This diversity is likely to increase as the sector grows,
delivering higher- level qualifications and vocational skills, with new providers operating domestically,
internationally and online.
28
Federation of Kenya Employers believes we already have too many universities and most of them duplicating courses that are already in mass
production, and this does not help in filling skills and qualifications gaps.
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According to Sessional Paper No 12 of 2012 the Vision for the University sub-sector in Kenya is to
provide globally competitive quality education, training, and research for sustainable development,
while the Mission is to produce graduates who respond to the needs of the society, upgrading the skills
of the existing workforce, developing the community and business leaders of tomorrow, as well as the
ability to start new businesses to employ Kenyans and contribute to the Country's economic well-being
within the following objectives:





To promote socio-economic development in line with the country's development agenda;
To achieve manpower development and skills acquisition;
To promote the discovery, storage and dissemination of knowledge;
To encourage research, innovation and application of innovation to development and;
To contribute to community service.
Universities are in the spotlight as never before. In part this new focus is the result of changes over
the last decade in public policy towards higher education. The introduction of module two
programmes in public universities, the inclusion of people from the private sector in the management
of public universities, and the enactment of the Universities Act 2012 and Universities Regulations
2013 have brought to a head public concern about whether access to university is genuinely
meritocratic and fair. Like many other institutions, universities have to answer new and profound
questions about the role they play and the contribution they can make to a future that is fairer.
Universities exist to provide high-quality education. But they have a broader economic and social role.
They are the gatekeepers of opportunity and the main pathway into careers in the professions. As the
Kenya economy becomes ever more knowledge-based and professionalized, the role that universities
play will assume greater importance. Who gets into university, and how they get on once they have
left, will have a critical role in determining whether Kenya’s sluggish rates of social mobility can be
improved. Kenya’s universities seem to be less open to people from lower and middle income groups
in society than those in the other EAC Partner States.
Social mobility is about ensuring that every person – and, in particular, every child – regardless of their
background, their circumstances, or their social class, has an equal opportunity to get on in life. That
entails breaking the transmission of disadvantage from one generation to the next. Kenya seems to
have lower levels of social mobility than other comparable countries and our society has become
inflexible, not less, over time. The evidence suggests that education and employability are at the core
of making progress in creating a level playing field of opportunity. For education to be a leveler of
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opportunity, all those with ability, aptitude and potential need to have equal access to what it can
offer. For example, one recent report found that, because of inequalities in access to higher education
and the increasing importance of higher education in getting on in the modern labour market,
universities have actually contributed towards making society less mobile over the last 50 years29. This
should not mean that universities have not made some progress in narrowing the social gap in higher
education participation. The crucial questions are whether that progress is sufficient given changes in
the structure of the Kenya economy and labour market, and whether recent improvements can be
accelerated.
Today we have a segregated labour market. Those with skills and qualifications enjoy greater job
security, higher levels of prosperity and better prospects of social advance. Those without skills find it
hard to escape a world of constant insecurity, endemic low pay and little prospect of social progress.
Bridging this divide is at the heart of making our society fairer. Of course there will be many people for
whom university is not appealing. For those who do not aspire to higher education new solutions need
to be found to provide better opportunities to progress. A higher priority on vocational education and
easier routes into a professional career will be among the answers policy-makers need to consider.
But overall it is likely that many more people will want, and need, to access higher education in the
future, and this will depend more on the innovations that will be introduced in the education system.
Higher Education Academic Infrastructure
The Kenya government has over the last fifty years strived to develop and put in place an education
infrastructure that is all inclusive and futuristic. The CUE has put in place a mechanism for quality
assurance with critical indicators that include:






admission criteria for students
criteria for appointment and promotion of staff
quality of research facilities their management and research output
the process for curriculum development
credit accumulation and transfer system
peer review teams, their training and mobilisation
This is a set of interrelated reference points that provide means of describing and maintaining
academic standards and protocol. This infrastructure is essential for establishment of a higher
29
SID & KNBS Exploring Kenya's : Pulling Apart or Pooling Together 2013
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education system responsive to the diverse needs of the education system. The universities that have
employed this system have received ISO certification, and making their governance and programmes
internationally recognisable. through this process CUE has completed development of standards and
guidelines in the following areas of study Standards have been developed for Medicine, agriculture,
basic sciences, engineering, business, computer science, education
The advances made so far make the introduction of higher education qualifications framework a
possibility. The standards and guidelines developed provide a smooth plane for transition from the
current objective based human resource development system to outcomes based. However, it is
important to note that only a few persons in the university fraternity who are involved in quality
assurance understand this process. There will, therefore, be a need for a concerted effort to bring all
university people on board, and this calls for heavy investment.
The Link Between the Labour Market Needs and the Education Program Outcomes: Education-toEmployment.
In 1966 the then University College of Nairobi organised the very first Education, Employment and
Rural Development Conference bringing together members of the academic community, policy
makers, administrators and representatives of aid agencies. The then Principal of the College, Arthur
T. Porter, observed:
Fact that the conference was sponsored by the College reflects our increasing
commitment to matters of national concern and our determination to make our
contribution where it is most needed to the better understanding and perhaps
even solution of the serious social and economic problems confronting our new
nations in Africa. And it is our sincere hope and wish that the College will
continue to serve as a forum for constructive criticism and responsible research
into issues of national significance.
This statement is still valid today. University education is the apex of the formal system of education
for education and training of high level manpower for national development, therefore, university
education and training programmes must respond to the demands of national development and
emerging socio-economic needs with a view to finding solutions to problems facing society.
Today there is a perception in Kenya that employers, higher education providers, and higher
education students live in parallel universes; because they seem to demonstrate fundamentally
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different understandings of the same situation. Some students and employers, for example, believe
that new graduates are adequately prepared for entry-level positions. Education providers, are even
much more optimistic on this arguing that new graduates have been well prepared and are ready to
work. The same disconnect occurs with regard to education; where education providers believe the
main reason students in Kenya drop out of higher education is that the course of study is too difficult,
but the youth disagree instead blaming it on affordability.
Why are the three major stakeholders not seeing the same thing in a country where things appear so
transparent? In large part, we noted, it is because they are not engaged with each other. Some of the
employers say they never communicate with education providers; of those that do, very few say it
proved effective. Employers and professional associations would like to be engaged more with
education providers. However, a number of issues have to be put in place first - (i) a mechanism or
forum to facilitate them to participate in contributing to programmes delivered by the education
providers, and (ii) an incentive structure which also cushions them from damage or injury for bringing
the academia on board. The weak linkage between education providers and employers has affected
effective skills development and building of competences, to the extent that most students have
indicated that they were and are still not well informed by the time they choose what to study they
have a good understanding of which disciplines lead to professions with job openings and good wage
levels.
None of the education providers visited was able to estimate the job-placement rates of their
graduates. The education providers are not making any effort to follow their departing graduates,
unless they return and register as active alumnis. Some universities have indicated that the little
information they have has been provided by the graduates themselves.
The education-to-employment journey in Kenya can be said to have three critical barriers: (i) enrolling
in postsecondary (university) education, (ii) building skills, and (ii) finding a job. There are significant
challenges at each barrier.

At the first (enrollment), cost is the top barrier, which in the past has seen at least 25 % of
enrolled students not completing study and more than 40 percent of high-school graduates
indicating they did not continue their education to university because it was too expensive.
Among those who do enroll, 46 percent are convinced that they made the right choice in their
selection of institution or field of study.
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
2014
At the second barrier (building skills), about 60 percent of students say that on-the-job training
and hands-on learning are the most effective instructional techniques, but fewer than half of that
percentage are enrolled in curricula that prioritize those techniques.
At the third barrier (finding a job), more than 60% of graduating students do not make a smooth
transition to work; their first jobs are unrelated to their field of study and they want to change
positions quickly. Most of them have ended up in what is commonly referred to as the informal
sector. About 25% of them try to get back to pursue postgraduate studies to enable them gain
meaningful employment.
After consultations with key informants in Kenya we draw a conclusion that an innovative and
effective program that ensures successful education-to-employment must have two features:
a) Higher education institutions and employers must actively step into one another’s worlds so
that employers help to design curricula and offer their employees as faculty, for example,
while education providers have students spend half their time on a job site and secure them
hiring guarantees, and
b) Employers and education providers work with their students early and intensely. Instead of
three distinct intersections occurring in a linear sequence (enrollment leads to skills, which
lead to a job), this should be a continuum in which employers commit to hire youth before
they are enrolled in a program to build their skills.
The problem, then, is not that success is impossible or unknowable — it is that it is scattered and small
scale compared with the need, because the relationships between education providers and employers
is not structured, guided and controlled, it is seen as an afterthought, which is not part of the human
resource development process. It should be and must stand out as part of the higher education
curriculum delivery. Therefore to get this process to work successfully requires new incentives and
structures. To increase the rate of success, the system must be facilitated to operate differently in
three ways:

The stakeholders (education providers and employers) need better data to make informed
choices and manage performance. Parents and young people, for example, need data about
career options and training pathways. Imagine what would happen if all educational
institutions were as motivated to systematically gather and disseminate data regarding
students after they graduated—job-placement rates and career trajectory five years out—as
they are regarding students’ records before admissions. Young people would have a clear
sense of what they could plausibly expect upon leaving a school or taking up a course of study,
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
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while education institutions would think more carefully about what they teach and how they
connect their students to the job market;
The most transformative solutions are those that involve multiple providers and employers
working within a particular industry or function. These collaborations solve the skill gap at a
sector level; by splitting costs among multiple stakeholders (educators, employers, and
trainees), investment is reduced for everyone—an incentive for increased participation.
Agreements such as non-poaching deals can also boost employers’ willingness to collaborate,
even in a competitive environment; and
Finally, the country needs system integrators (one or several) responsible for taking a highlevel view of the entire heterogeneous and fragmented education-to-employment system. The
role of the system integrator is to work with education providers and employers to develop
skill solutions, gather data, and identify and disseminate positive examples. Such integrators
can be defined by sector, region, or target population. Rwanda has come up with the
Workforce Development Authority to manage this task.
In Kenya, the link between the labour market needs and an education program outcomes need to
scale up. However, there are three challenges to achieving this:



constraints on the resources of education providers, such as finding qualified faculty and
investing in expansion. In this instance coupling technology—the Internet and other low-cost
outlets—and a highly standardized curriculum can help to supplement faculty and spread
consistent instruction at a modest cost;
insufficient opportunities to provide youth with hands-on learning. In this case experience in
the past, and what the informal sector has demonstrated is that apprenticeships traditionally
have provided hands-on experience, but there are not enough spaces to meet demand.
Technology, in the form of “serious games” and other kinds of simulations, can help here, too,
by offering tailored, detailed, practical experience to large numbers at a comparatively low
cost; and
the hesitancy of employers to invest in training unless it involves specialized skills. employers
often are willing to invest only in those specialized skills whose value they can fully capture;
they do not want to spend money on employees who might take their expertise elsewhere.
But for providers, it is expensive to develop solutions for every employer. One proven
approach is to combine customization and scale by offering a standard core curriculum
complemented by employer-specific top- ups. We encourage employers to come and sponsor
certain programmes they believe are of essence and add value to their operations.
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What Should education Providers Focus on toward award of a Degree
Information gathered so far suggest that the main focus for higher education institutions now and into
ten years should be on talent management and talent development. This is in particular to managerial
and technical roles that are the difference makers in industry. One of the major reasons to focus on
talent is that it is a great way to get the human resource factor into a broader discussion about what is
next for the country and what the national education development strategy should be.
We believe, at this stage, that positioning the human resource development function and talent
development (role of HEI) and management (role of employer) to contribute to the overall
effectiveness and performance of the country is the best way the university function can add value to
strategic national development. As it stands now employers in Kenya seem to suggest intense
competition for a relatively small number of young, talented individuals, in occupations in which
salaries are rising by more than 10 percent per year, and companies have to build a local employment
brand that is relevant, valued, and authentic. And, which are these occupations, and what is this
branding? This is the sweet spot that the higher education institutions should be seeking in order to
make a difference, position themselves as leaders and be on top of things.
III.
The Emerging Situation
Challenges and Opportunities
Five years after the Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Community Common Market
(PEACCM) was signed (2009) Kenya has become an important destination country for migrants coming
from Central and Eastern Africa as well as other continents. The overall majority of the migrants (or
79% of the total), come from sub-Saharan Africa countries, with the top twelve countries of origin
being Nigeria (7.9%), the Republic of the Congo (7.61%), Eritrea (7.5%), Burundi (6.31%), the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC, 5.76%), Mozambique (4.25%), Somalia (4.3%), Chad (4.3%),
Sudan (3.81%), Rwanda (3.59%), Senegal (2.78%) and Mali (1.72%); only two of these – Burundi and
Rwanda – are EAC countries (Migration DRC, 2007, based on census data for the period 2000-2002).
Kenya has also become a major sending country of labour migrants to Eastern and Southern Africa and
to various parts of the developed world, notably Europe, North America and both Australia and New
Zealand in Oceania (Migration DRC, 2007). Finally, Kenya is a source, transit and destination country of
irregular migration, the first one to the Middle East and the last two to Southern Africa and ultimately
via Latin America to the developed world. These patterns of international migration generate diverse
configurations of labour and human resource movement calling for different policy frameworks.
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Kenya’s dominance in this regional economic community (REC) and labour supply, could be explained
by the country’s stable economic development modelled along a capitalist ethos, heightened training
of highly trained and skilled human resources and relative peace and tranquility over its 50 years of
independence.
The five freedoms and two rights of the Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Community
Common Market (PEACCM) touches on the socio-economic fabric of society and should, of necessity,
be incorporated in Kenya Vision 2030, and the education sector. Kenya’s and other EAC Partner States’
employment and labour policies and legislation predate the PEACCM and therefore require revision
and harmonisation to conform to the changing circumstances. The EAC Partner States have not
incorporated the PEACCM in the education sector policy and implementation strategies, which puts its
implementation in abeyance on evolution and growth of education in the region as the springboard
for skills development and gateway to social mobility.
The last four decades have been a period of unprecedented growth in higher education in Kenya. At
the start of the 1970s there were a little over 2,700 university students. Today there are slightly over
200,000 in universities dotted around the country. This expansion has provided a benevolent
environment for efforts to widen the social make-up of those participating in higher education. From
the mid- to the late 2000s the gap between the higher education participation rates of people living in
the most advantaged and the most disadvantaged areas narrowed, both in proportional terms and
percentage point terms. Today, however, the most advantaged 10% of young people are still seven
times more likely to attend the most selective universities than the 60% most disadvantaged.
Access to university still remains inequitable. There is a strong correlation between social class and the
likelihood of going to university generally and to the top universities particularly. Four national schools
and one college and an academy get more of their students into the University of Nairobi than the
combined efforts of 8,000 district schools and academies. So there is a long way to go. Worse still, the
progress of recent years is now at risk.
There has been a rapid growth in the number of programs universities offer. Some universities have
maintained relative constant number of programs and as few as 20 while others have seen
programmes emerge and rise to as many as 600 programmes. This rapid expansion of university
programs is a spontaneous response to the high demand of university education. With the increasing
large flows of students from schools, popular demand for higher education increased, because of
hope people seem to have in higher education as a pathway out of poverty. It is clear from all the
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universities that the growing number of programs is not out of the university's short-term an or longterm planning based on any skills gap analysis of the labour market.
The question of what happens to students once they leave university and their ability to succeed in
their chosen career is all too often ignored in considerations about what universities can do to
enhance social mobility. Universities have a crucial role in ensuring that everyone who graduates is
equipped with the tools to succeed in the workplace. Across the higher education sector, there is a
growing consensus that universities have to do more to prepare students for entering employment in
addition to supporting them in achieving a good degree. Employers are looking for experiences that
demonstrate communication, team work and organisational skills. Therefore it is important that every
university should be clear about the workplace capabilities they aim to provide students with.
The Commission for University Education (CUE) has proposed a university rating system to help
improve and sustain quality education and relevance of skills development for the labour market and
national development. More than that, it would be in the interests of students and employers to
develop performance stand tables (PST) that reflect how effective each particular course is in
providing a range of skills, with the university rating being an aggregation of all its courses (PSTs). In
other words, the PSTs will be a reflection of educational gain. They should also reflect outcomes in
terms of the career paths that graduates achieve once they are in the labour market. Given the power
that the PST are likely to have in shaping behaviour, the Government should take the lead in
establishing new outcomes-focused national PST for universities, to ensure universities are challenged
to re-examine their programmes, delivery methods and examination practices.
Both universities and students have consistently raised the issue of access to student financing and
university funding.
a) There are reasons to be concerned that people from relatively disadvantaged backgrounds may
be struggling to take part in graduate and postgraduate studies. There is a real risk that the
ability to pay up front, rather than an individual’s potential, will increasingly become a
determining factor in who can access graduate and postgraduate education in Kenya, if the
current practice does not change. This poses an unacceptable threat to the long-term health of
the Kenya higher education sector. Moreover, as tuition fees rise, those from disadvantaged
backgrounds may be less likely to want to take on additional debt after graduating in order to
pursue postgraduate studies. Lack of access to postgraduate study is in danger of becoming a
social mobility time bomb.
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b) Financing public universities in Kenya have traditionally relied on Government funding to carry
out their activities. Due to the harsh economic situations witnessed by the region over the
recent past, Government support to these institutions has seen a steady decline in real terms,
and the universities have been forced to operate under very tight budgets. The situation has not
been made any better by mass enrolment of students. The universities have therefore been
forced to rethink their strategy, and possibly look for extra sources of financing including
establishing income-generating activities.
It is therefore important that the Government considers introducing appropriate systems for student
financing and university funding.
Kenya also faces a another problem - related to admission and acceptability of its secondary school
graduates to universities within the region. The mutual recognition agreement among the states
notwithstanding, still consider Kenyan students not university material. Presently, they are required to
undergo a six to nine month bridging programmes to qualify for entry into universities in Uganda and
Tanzania. Alternatively, in Uganda they are also allowed to sit "A" level exams and on passing they are
admitted into any university in Uganda.
Skills Gaps
Questions are arising on the quality of education and training at Kenyan universities, especially as a
result of massification of universities and programmes. A number of issues have been raised:
Issue 1: That university teachers are not making effort in "being 'professional' in their course delivery.
The Kenya government recognizes the value of professional development, as is evidenced in
various policy documents. it is professional development that enables teachers to keep
abreast with recent developments in their subject areas; enhance their professional
competences, advance their career and is a way to introduce curricula and instructional
reforms. This is not achieved through hurriedly prepared lecture notes, but well researched
and prepared lecture papers. Each lecture should be seen as a learning and growth
experience. Each lecture to university students should always be in form that it is almost
always ready for or very close to publication.
Issue 2: There is a widespread perception that quality of education in public universities has declined
as a result of increased student enrolment, outdated curriculum, inadequate and outdated
equipment and facilities and low staff morale due to poor working conditions.
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Issue 3: The employer is not part of the education system, likewise the university is not involved in
policy issues with government system and therefore removed from decisions on skills
development necessary for productivity and development that the country needs.
To address these three issues which directly affect development of critical skills and competences
there is need to examine the national and individual higher education quality assurance practices
driving teaching, learning and research. It is gratifying to note that the Commission for Universities
Education has already put in place a comprehensive quality assurance framework for the university
sector. The challenge is in follow-up to ensure that each institution has an internal working quality
assurance mechanism. Four positions exist:
1. develop critical indicators for measuring quality of various academic and research programmes;
2. establish competent quality assurance systems for assessing and accrediting new academic
programmes as well as regular curricula reviews. This should include incorporation of
professional bodies and associations in the process of curricula development and reviews and
accreditation of programmes30;
3. strengthen the institutional capacity of a regulatory to provide an effective oversight role in this
area; and
4. finally, university lecturers should be required to undertake relevant pedagogy training taking
into consideration the need to master the subject content and acquisition of professional skills
and competencies
The other phase of skills gaps concern the direction Kenya, and all the other Partner States of the EAC
desire to go - knowledge-based society. The Kenyan public believes that the graduate of our
universities should demonstrate skills in lifelong-learning, critical thinking, and strong ethical values of
caring, honesty and integrity in addition to professional competences. Every industry we study is
undergoing rapid technological, demographic, or regulatory change— driving a need for new technical
and professional skills. As the economy grows, these challenges become more acute.
Let us look at this issue by industry:


Energy companies are focused on petroleum and gas exploration, coal prospecting,
geothermal and hydro-energy, wind energy, and solar energy.
Auto manufacturers are now moving away from assembling they want to manufacture, and
hybrid technologies, coupled with massive amounts of software to create autonomous driving
30
Over the last ten years there have been many court cases where graduates universities and professional associations are fighting on validity, relevance,
quality and accreditation of awards given to graduates. Some of these cases are still on-going in the fields of medicine, engineering and law.
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
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features.
Healthcare companies are reorganizing their teams to focus on data- driven outcomes forced
by changes in regulation. Financial services firms are reinventing themselves to focus on more
sustainable businesses, regulation, and new growth markets.
Manufacturers of all types are redefining products with software, moving into service
businesses, and redesigning products to use mobile devices and apps.
In fact, our research shows that software engineers, who now play a role in nearly every business, are
in short supply in every industry, yet most of them operate as technicians and technologists in
backstreets of Nairobi.
Changing Course
Research and Publications are core pillars of the university system. Publication of research findings in
reputable journals is one of the ways in which these findings are widely disseminated to stakeholders.
Studies show that research and publishing by faculty has sharply dropped over the last few years. Due
to heavy teaching responsibilities – brought about by the rising student numbers, plus the need to
moonlight so as to make some extra money to supplement the "meagre pay" – faculty are not keen on
undertaking meaningful research and publishing their works. However, this does not mean the faculty
are spending more time on developing their students rather they are spreading themselves too thin to
cope with quality. This calls for the universities and the government to strictly begin looking into two
things: student-lecturer ratio, and "moonlighting" vis-a-vis formal cases of visiting lecturers from other
universities. Guidelines should be developed on how to use lecturers in full-time employment with
other universities instead of the current trend that encourages "free-lancing" at the expense of
quality.
No doubt the environment of higher education in Kenya continues to face relentless and rapid change,
underscoring the crucial role of leadership and management in maintaining morale, enhancing
productivity, and helping staff at all institutional levels cope with momentous and rapid change. Those
in higher education management and leadership positions are finding it essential that they understand
shifting demographics, new technologies, the commercialization of higher education, the changing
relationships between institutions and governments and the move from an industrial to an
information society. Higher education institutions must be poised to create the human capital
necessary to keep pace with the knowledge revolution. Current leaders must be trained, new leaders
prepared, and students identified who will both lead and study higher education for the future. This
calls for heavy investment in leadership and management for change, and to convince those with
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mind-sets in the old school approaches to embrace the changing trends in higher education
leadership, management and development.
According to UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education (1998), low funding from the
exchequer, increased enrolment, limited access compared to the population level, increased
enrolment without commensurate improvement in available facilities, gender inequality, and a low
research capacity, are some of the problems facing universities in the region. These problems have led
to fears that quality of education is in a downward trend in most of these universities. In Kenya,
overcrowding, low budgets and staff retention problems continue to contribute to inefficiency and
falling academic standards. Staff recruitment lags behind and impacts negatively on teaching and
research. Up to two-thirds of university teachers have had no initial pedagogical training. Most of
these institutions are relying on individuals who have not acquired their highest level of academic
training as teachers. To improve their efficiency and effectiveness in delivering their services, staff,
and especially the academic staff, must be trained continually in relevant areas. Universities must
have a clear training policy, outlining their strategy for human resource development, instead of the
ad hoc procedures currently followed in most of these institutions. In line with this the universities of
Nairobi, Kenyatta and Jomo Kenyatta have, in recognition of this problem developed in-house
pedagogical programmes to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of their lecturers in programme
delivery. Kenyatta University has gone further and developed a regional centre for capacity
development and a centre for teaching excellence. These two centres are open to anyone who wants
to enhance his/her pedagogical skills.
Student welfare is crucially important component of any university system – and which is often
ignored in most university decisions and processes. National and institutional decision- makers must
place students and their needs at the centre of their concerns, and must consider them as major
partners and responsible stakeholders in the renewal of higher education. This must include student
involvement in issues that affect their level of education, in evaluation, the renovation of teaching
methods and curricula, and in the framework of policy formulation and institutional management.
Students have the right to organize and represent themselves; their involvement in these issues must
be guaranteed. The process of integration of students in the university academic architecture should
start on admission, through assessment, examination and award of qualifications. The three weeks to
three months of orientation should be used more to understand the student (his resources, skills,
traits) so as to adequately accommodate him/her in the human resource development frame.
The dawn of a global knowledge society with information-driven economies and expansions in
international higher education markets is placing new demands on higher education institutions to
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search for more innovative approaches in academic course provisions; revenue generation; to sustain
educational quality; good institutional governance, and human resource management and to address
longstanding difficulties caused by rapid enrolments; financial constraints; frequent labour strife and
brain drain. In addition, it is becoming clear to the academia that they should open their doors to the
employers and governments to participate in university education. Therefore, this calls upon Kenyan
universities to work closely with the government and the private sector in identifying skills gaps to the
implementation and realization of Kenya Vision 2030, and to jointly work on a strategy to fill these
gaps, on the basis of five shared principles: country ownership, focus on results, inclusive partnership,
transparency and accountability.
IV.
Lessons and Suggestions for Implementation
Higher education providers everywhere face a daunting paradox. On the one hand, they operate in an
increasingly complex environment and must deliver on an expanded set of policy and operational
objectives external to their environment, at the same time struggle to stay within their mission. In a
world characterized by macroeconomic uncertainty, rapid social change, and technological innovation,
citizens’ expectations of what HEI ought to deliver are rising. On the other hand, HEI are hampered by
growing student populations and shrinking budgets. The ratio of general higher education budget to
gross domestic product for Kenya, for instance, is negligible, at 1.3%. Meanwhile, public trust in HEI is
eroding. Against this backdrop, not only must HEI do more with less; they must do so in highly visible
ways, if they are to regain the faith of their constituents.
The good news is that HEI can deliver the performance their constituents need and expect— and,
indeed, some have begun to do so. Based on our on-the-ground experience working with HEIs, and
numerous conversations with public and private leaders and thinkers, we conclude that what works
today is a more disciplined, systematic approach to solving industry problems. It is a call on HEI to
favor the rational and the analytical over the purely ideological, and to be willing to abandon tools and
techniques that no longer work. This should be driven by four core principles:




the use of better evidence for decision making,
greater engagement and empowerment of stakeholders,
thoughtful investments in expertise and skill building, and
closer collaboration with the public, private and social sectors.
Each of these principles is central to the HEI process of realizing their mission of creating more
effective yet affordable human capital for nations that are desirous of becoming knowledge societies,
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industrialized and high performing. These set of principles of clear the way for the involvement of
society in shaping the human resource development function.
The Use of Better Evidence For Decision Making
Results-oriented (often referred to as outcomes-based ) HEI are increasingly making use of hard data
and statistical analysis to inform decisions on programs, skills development initiatives and competence
development strategies. Evidence-based decision making creates real value, both financial and
nonfinancial, at individual and institutional levels and for all citizens. Done right, it allows HEI to
assess program performance and effectiveness, interpretation and integration of national policy and
priorities in education and research programs, measure progress, and engage in a more rational public
debate on sensitive but outcomes based issues.
We have proposed three forms of evidence-based decision making in HEI in Kenya:
Collecting Credible Performance Data
HEI must decide what to measure and how, always with an eye on the overall goal of the program or
initiative. One of the goals of a HEI-wide transformation effort to reduce the perceived complexity of
dealing with the public As part of this initiative, the HEI must identify life events during which it has to
interact with the stakeholders and the general public and to simplify each of these interactions, all the
while measuring citizen satisfaction to track whether the changes are actually working. Similarly, as
part of a broader open HE initiative, the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology has
started a radio programme of around 15 key performance indicators relating to the country's health,
education, safety, business conditions, agriculture and community development outcomes. The radio
acts as a scorecard for citizens, sharing the university's performance and relationship with
stakeholders against these metrics. However, the university is yet to program and analyse the results
of this engagements
Benchmarking Consistently against Peers
National and international benchmarks are powerful but underutilized as inputs into HE program
design and decision making, particularly in a world where HEI everywhere face similar issues and no
single HEI excels across the board. On almost any metric—from diploma graduation rates to
unemployment to post-doctoral programs — there are wide variations in HEI performance across the
country and even within the EAC region. But every HEI’s best practices can be useful to other HEIs and
can motivate change. The introduction of the CUE’s Programme for Peer Review, for instance, has
spurred reform in universities in the country and subsequently highlighted a range of best practices in
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education, such as the building and nurturing of a high-quality academic staff pipeline, through
introduction of pedagogy training for academic staff.
Using Data to Design and Improve Interventions
Reliable, clean data can inform the design or refinement of HEI initiatives. The CUE in collaboration
with HEI should consider establishing a framework explicitly to use data about student and citizen
behavior to improve the effectiveness of education and research interventions delivered by
universities. As it has been proven by the medical field, the framework would use randomized control
trials to test the impact of small changes, to improve both learner and academic staff performance at
all levels and units.
Greater Engagement and Empowerment of Stakeholders
Innovative HEIs are making it easier for students and their graduates to access private and public
services and contribute increasingly to national development. And the most forward-thinking HEIs are
starting to master the shift from simply providing knowledge to regularly engaging and empowering
students/learners, involving them in the design—and, in some cases, the delivery—of education and
research products. This shift is not just about increasing choice and well-being; it’s also about boosting
productivity, with the help of technology and the use of open data - elements critical in skills,
competences and talent development and central to productivity, performance management and
innovation.
Using Innovative Channels to Make Services More stakeholder-centric
The private sector’s responsiveness to customer demands has led to heightened public expectations
of HEI. Because people can do their banking and shopping online, for example, they expect to be able
to apply for driver’s licenses and submit tax returns online as well. HEIs are expected to supply the
human resource capacity that can make this possible, and the government should invest to meet
these expectations. But being citizen-centric isn’t just about the Internet: Australia, for instance, has
pioneered mobile government offices—satellite-equipped trucks—that serve as a one-stop-shop for
government services for people living in remote areas. The Kenyan higher education system is
challenged to walk ahead of technological innovations and empower their students and learners to be
innovators and employers.
Soliciting stakeholder Input to Improve HEI Services
Innovative and outcomes based HEIs are creating new ways for students to make their voices heard,
giving them the ability to provide input into national development, and to allow the public to search,
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view, and comment on individual university programs, regulations and practices. Other HEI such as
Strathmore University are going even further to solicit citizen feedback on their programs by allowing
their law students to participate in the drafting of County constitutions and subjecting them to
residents' scrutiny, a significant example of “deliberative democracy” at work - while at the same time
developing the skills and competences of the students.
Tapping Stakeholders to Help Deliver Better Services at a Lower Cost
Stakeholders can play an important role not just in the design but also in the delivery of HEI services
and programs. Just like the City of Nairobi would allow its residents to report nonemergency
complaints—about things like potholes or garbage collection—via a website, a mobile app, text
messaging, Skype, or phone, a HEI could allow its stakeholders to contribute to the review and
development of its programs. Universities are now developing platforms, design to invite
participation of stakeholders in informing the institutions. Best platforms are those that operate as
free web-based application programming interfaces. Such platforms, along with third-party apps
empower stakeholders to do some of the work that has traditionally fallen to HEI administration
including coming up with ideas on financing, development, research, and do much of the work, but
also reap the benefits.
The trend toward participatory HEI can only gain in strength, and by engaging and empowering
stakeholder to co-design and co-deliver HEI services, universities can not only better meet employer
and industry needs; they can also shift some of the burden of accountability from the university to the
people, allowing high-quality delivery of services in an environment of constrained resources. The
participatory approach recognizes the redefined roles as:
(a) The Academia as a creator of firms/enterprises through innovation incubator facilities, and
centres of excellence for innovation and entrepreneurship development, and not just a provider
of education, training, research and technology;
(b) Industry as an educator and trainer, whose entry into the education and training sphere would be
based on structured internships and fellowships, academia/industry personnel exchange
programmes, and the creation of professorial chairs, and not just supplier of goods and services;
and
(c) The State as the venture capitalist through (i) innovative financing programs, and (ii) creation of
supportive environment for the sustainable growth of collaborative research and development
among firms, universities and national laboratories to address issues of national competitiveness,
and not just the guardian of political will.
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Thoughtful Investments In Expertise and Skill Building
Mission-driven employees are among the public and private sectors' most valuable assets.
Unfortunately, many employers fail to get the most out of their people—they don’t invest enough in
developing their employees’ skills and expertise. For instance, although government agencies have
started to embrace “lean” principles such as value-stream mapping and Six Sigma process
improvement, many are unable to sustain the impact from these initiatives because they haven’t been
deliberate about building internal capabilities. In a 2012 survey of 974 public-sector leaders, found
that only about 39 percent of large-scale public-sector projects fully met their targets31.
Sometimes, the problem is that organisations invest in the wrong kind of training. Research has
demonstrated that adults learn six to seven times more through practice and feedback than through
lectures, yet far too many HEI training programs consist of classroom sessions or self-study modules.
Smart institutions are ensuring that their students develop and hone the skills that truly matter—
whether those are core competencies, sector-specific capabilities, or broader expertise in strategy and
risk management.
Using Adult-Learning Practices to Build Core Capabilities
Management skills are crucial to the success of any government program. A study by McKinsey and
Oxford University revealed that more than two-thirds of budget overruns in large-scale IT projects are
due to managerial—not technical—shortcomings32. Best-practice government agencies are investing
to make sure their managers are equipped with the requisite know-how. The US Department of
Housing and Urban Development’s Office of Multifamily Housing Programs recently undertook a
capability-building program that included a series of process improvements, the introduction of new
managerial routines, and intensive coaching on problem-solving skills. The program yielded a
reduction of more than 70 percent in the agency’s backlog of housing applications and a 35 percent
productivity improvement. When Germany’s Federal Labor Agency undertook a similar program, the
agency’s “customers” benefited: their average duration of unemployment fell from 164 days to 136
days. The Swedish Migration Board’s capability-building efforts led to a reduction in average
processing times from 267 days to 85 days, saving more than $160 million annually.
These cases demonstrate one thing, that skills and competence development does not end at the door
steps of the HEI, they must be carried on by the employer. Universities only provide job entry skills
and competencies, the employer provide enhancing skills and competencies.
31
32
Stacey Dietsch : Leading Transformational Change in the Public Sector, McKinsey Center for Government, May 2013
Reference class forecasting Survey, Mckinsey and Company and Oxford University, 2012
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Developing Specialized Capabilities In Critical Sectors
This is a responsibility that HEI cannot do on their own, but jointly with the employers, who include
government, private and social sectors. Investments in building expertise in particularly important or
challenging vertical sectors, such as infrastructure or transportation, energy, etc can have significant
payoffs. Borrowing from elsewhere, and which is of importance to the East African region today as the
Partner States scramble to build modern railway, Hong Kong’s Mass Transit Railway (MTR) developed
deep expertise in core mass-transit capabilities such as operations, maintenance, and property
management as a result of the government’s investment and rail-led transportation strategy. This
expertise has helped the MTR, which is still 77 percent government-owned, to win contracts to
maintain, operate, and improve metro systems in Australia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
Another increasingly important subsector is cybersecurity: recognizing this, the US Department of
Homeland Security is collaborating with universities including Carnegie Mellon University and the
University of Maryland to train a pipeline of approximately 30,000 professionals in cybersecurity.
What this informs Kenya is that procurement of mega important and challenging projects should be
country led with high level involvement of HEI and local private sector. This is critical in challenging the
HEI institutions to rethink their human resource development strategies for the country, innovate
more and have their programmes and curricula forward looking. No country can develop its skills and
competencies in strategic areas, while depending on external contractors and investors to develop its
economy. No wonder, in Kenya, like most of East Africa, engineers graduating from its universities end
up as technologists, technicians and sales persons in the labour market.
Sharpening Strategic and Risk-Management Skills
HEI face large, intractable challenges with many dimensions, multiple stakeholders, and far-reaching
ripple effects. Some are perennial issues, low research financing, whereas others may be external
shocks. Regardless of the nature or origin of the challenge, such problems often affect—and require
coordinated responses from— multiple parts of the Institution and stakeholders. HEI leaders must be
equipped to anticipate, assess, and react to these complex the problems. That was the impetus for the
Singapore government’s creation of the Centre for Strategic Futures, which “aims to develop insights
into future trends and discontinuities, and cultivate capacity and instincts to manage strategic
surprises.” In an increasingly complex and interconnected world, HEI will struggle to address the
challenges of doing more with less if their employees are not armed with the right skills. A
commitment to capability building will allow HEIs to be able to take a more dynamic and adaptable
approach to reform. The CUE, has its job cut out for the next ten years to help the HEI on to the path
of reform, growth and stability. Yes, it has started well with the Universities Act, Quality Assurance,
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and Universities Standards and Guidelines. What is needed next is the infrastructure to enable each
HEI redefine its future in line with national goals and objectives.
Closer Collaboration With The Public, Private and Social Sectors
Finally, the higher education sector must adapt to a changing ecosystem in which the biggest
challenges cross the boundaries of the public, private, and social sectors. The need for HEI to
collaborate with the public, business and social worlds exists whether higher education is acting as a
consumer of products and services, a provider of human resources and innovations, or an economic
stakeholder.
Universities have a wealth of information in education and research documents published and
unpublished. Opening up education datasets in the newly created Counties should spur the creation
of start-ups that use the data to improve teacher quality, reduce infrastructure costs, optimize school
locations, and in general help educators do more with less.
The national government have an opportunity—perhaps even a mandate, in certain troubled sectors to play the part of a “systems integrator” that takes a high-level view on an issue and figures out how
all stakeholders should work together. One area in which government can assume an integrator role is
in the definition and development of education-to-employment system. This should help to reduce
unemployment. This study found out that the existing modern sector of 53,791 establishments
(including government and private sector) is only employing 2.3 million people, while the informal
sector takes on 10.5 million out of a labour force of about 31.5 million, of whom 75% are young
people, yet only 10 percent of employers in the modern sector report that they can find enough
qualified entry-level candidates. Rwanda has adopted an integrator model through its Workforce
Development Authority - a coalition of government agencies, private companies, trade associations,
and labor unions - develops a rolling five-year projection of how much manpower is needed in specific
geographies, sectors and skill areas, then identifies the best training provider to co-develop a
curriculum with selected companies to meet those exact needs.
The convergence of the HEI, public, private, and social sectors means that higher education leaders
will increasingly need to be “tri-sector athletes,” adept in operating at the intersections of these
sectors, and ready to embrace new forms of organization and service delivery that are rooted in
partnership, and targeted at growth.
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2014
A View to the Future
The foregoing lays bare the challenge facing Kenya at government, private and social sector levels
versus higher education in its effort to produce competitive, comparable and relevant human
resource factor.
In our view the focus of the stakeholders to higher education should be on what are considered
national priority areas. Around these areas the stakeholders should work together to develop a higher
education strategy that address the required skills and competencies. At the same time, the
stakeholders should develop a quality assurance system that will assure quality, credibility, relevance,
comparability and international recognition of programs and qualifications ensuing from the higher
education sector.
References
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14.
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CUE, Stakeholders Workshop on Universities Regulations 2013 and Standards and Guidelines
2013, October 2013
KNBS, Labour Force Analytical Report: Based on the Kenya Integrated Household Budget
Survey 2005/2006, April 2008
KNBS, Economic Survey 2013
KNBS, Statistical Abstract 2012
KNBS, Well-Being: A Social-Economic Profile, June 2008
Republic of Kenya, Report of the Kenya Education Commission, 1964
Republic of Kenya, Sessional Paper No.10 of 1965 on African Socialism and its Application in
Kenya
Republic of Kenya, The Education Act 1968
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1976
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New Decade and Beyond, March 1988
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Development in the Knowledge economy: Report of the Public Universities Inspection Board,
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Republic of Kenya, The Kenya Constitution 2010.
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Medium Term Plan (2008-2012) of Kenya Vision 20130, May 2013
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of Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Asia Regions, http://www.unido.org
University College, Nairobi, Education employment and Rural Development: Report of the
Kericho Conference, October 1966
List of Key Informants Responding
Government
1. Mrs. Mwakisha, Director of Education, Ministry of Education Science and Technology
2. Mr. S.W.Wanyonyi, Directorate of Technical Education Ministry of Education Science and
Technology
3. Dr. Nyagate Areba, Senior Deputy Director, Directorate of Higher Education Ministry of Education
Science and technology
4. Prof. David K. Some, Commission Secretary/Chief Executive, Commission for University Education
5. Ms. Linah Lilan, Chief Accountant, Commission for University Education
6. Mr. Samuel Kachumbo,
Private Sector
1. Kevit Desai, Kenya Private Sector Alliance, and chair LIWA Kenya Trust
2. Okeche Harrison, Chief Manager, Federation of Kenya Employers
3. Prof. Abdulghafur El-Busaidy, Islamic Development Bank Education Trust Kenya
Academia
1. Prof. Henry W. Muturo, Deputy Vice Chancellor Academic Affairs, University of Nairobi
2. Prof. Peter O. K'Obonyo, Deputy Principal, School of Business , University of Nairobi
3. Dr. Tabitha Mumbi Muchee, Dean and Administrator, University of Eastern Africa, Baraton
4. Ms. Joan Koima, Registrar, University of Eastern Africa Baraton
5. Prof. Francis W.O. Aduol, Vice Chancellor, The Technical University of Kenya
6. Prof. Ruth Kiraka, Dean Graduate School, Strathmore University
7. Dr. Catherine Dean, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Strathmore University
8. Dr. David Wangombe, Dean SMC, Strathmore University
9. Dr. Luis Franceschi, Dean Strathmore Law School
10. Mr. Patrick Kibui, Registrar, Strathmore University
11. Patrick Shabaya, Directorate of Strategy and Quality Assurance Strathmore University
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12. Luis Borrallo, director Advancement and External Relations, Strathmore University
13. Geoffrey Injeni, Director SFAE, Strathmore University
14. Kamau, Registrar, Jomo Kemyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
15. Dr. Shadrack Saina, Deputy Director, Moi University
16. Prof. Okumu, Deputy Vice Chancellor, Academic Affairs, Kenyatta Univerity
17. Prof. Grahenia, education Kenyatta University
18. Mr. Nyaga, Registrar, Kenya University
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Situational Report
RWANDA COUNTRY REPORT
Charles Kitima, Fred Mugisha & Mohammed Kerre
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Introduction
The Republic of Rwanda, with population 12 million, has more than 67% representing the youth. This
counts very much on the development of the Country. The Rwanda National Vision 2020 gives the
future that people of Rwanda are looking for. It is through higher education that Rwandans will
realize their dream. Higher education will facilitate the achievement of the Vision 2020. President
Kagame says in order to be a United and Competitive nation the following six Interwoven pillars must
be a focus of the Government: (i) Good governance and efficient State; (ii) Skilled human capital, (iii)
Vibrant Private Sector ; (iv) World-Class Physical Infrastructure; (v) Modern Agriculture and Livestock;
and (vi) Targeting national, regional and global Markets. The Vision alludes that ‘absolutely crucial for
achieving vision 2020 will be to properly link education policies, with sector development and labour
policies.
The Republic of Rwanda wants its growing population to transform from an agrarian society to a
Secondary and tertiary Industry Society. The shift from a subsistence agriculture economy demands
higher education that will propel development of indigenous private sector for partnering with
foreign private sector for wealth creation. The Economic Development and Poverty Reduction
Strategy (EDPRS) is key for transforming Rwanda into middle income status and knowledge driven
economy. The EDPRS is structured to enable graduation from extreme poverty by monitoring
graduation through a database across social protection programmers, supporting financial products,
services and literacy for the poorest, strengthening a range of SACOOs, and improving the coverage
and targeting of core social protection programmes such as VUP, and . linking the poorest to economic
activity through the provision of Skills (WDA).
By 2020 it expects to have 16 million people. This calls for investment in strategic areas of human
capital development. The development programmes require a linkage of education with the following
interwoven pillars:



Reconstruction of the nation and its Social Capital anchored on good governance, underpinned
by a capable state
Transformation of agriculture into a productive, high value, market oriented sector, with forward
linkage to other sectors
Development of an efficient private sector spearheaded by Competitiveness and
entrepreneurship.
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

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Comprehensive human resources development encompassing education, health and ICT Skills
aimed at public sector, private sector and civil society. To be integrated with demographic,
health and gender issues
Infrastructural development, entailing improved transport links, energy and water supplies and
ICT networks.
Promotion of regional economic integration and cooperation.
Rwanda is committed to reaching 'Universal Education for All’, there is a need to educate and train
people at all levels: primary, secondary and tertiary, with special attention paid to quality education.
This has been declining in a large part due to low calibre of teaching staff and therefore, the
government's commitment to organize intensive teacher training programmes.
Although the country will continue to rely on imported technology from advanced countries, the
Government sees its development coming only if education is properly planned and implemented, and
education system at all levels is directly linked to concrete development sectors of the economy. Well
–trained, specialized nationals will be essential to run as well as maintain technological systems
ranging from medicine and agriculture to industry and telecommunications. Major emphasis will be
put on vocational and technical training in the fields of technology, engineering and management for
secondary school leavers, as well as various sections of society (with particular emphasis on youth and
women).
To encourage skills development, microcredit schemes will be promoted specifically to extend finance
to self-employed young technicians, and to promote innovation, entrepreneurship culture, and the
evolution and growth of enterprises. It is crucial to understand that the investment needed for the
development of the secondary and tertiary sectors, will not be effective without a skilled labour force.
To develop skilled labour force the government is working very closely with the private sector to
develop clear education policies and workplace development environment conducing for producing
entry level skills and skills enhancement. The concern of the private sector is in productivity and
efficiency. To address this concern, joint manpower planning committees and a Workforce
Development programme have been initiated. One of the outcomes of this process is the launching of
efficiency and continuous upgrading of skills programmes in national Institutions aimed at on the job
training, in service training, and distant learning.
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2014
The Rwanda Education System
Rwanda is in the process of completing and harmonizing its national education system within the
framework of Rwanda Vision (RV) 2020, which seeks to transform Rwanda into a middle-income
country by the year 2020. In 2010 the National Council for Higher Education carried out a survey to
establish the statistical labour market data to inform higher education institutions on skills required to
meet labour market needs to foster national development. Rwanda’s education sector’s major
priorities, as deciphered from RV2020, quality education and promotion of science and technology
with special attention to information communication technology (ICT) at all levels of education, are
embedded in the Long-Term Strategy and Financial Framework (LTSFF) 2006-2015 and in the
Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP) 2008-2012.
The structure of education in Rwanda is still undergoing reforms and this has included transforming
basic education from 9 years to 12 years - basic education covers primary and lower secondary
education
Country
Structure (Yrs)
P
S
N/A
Secondary
LS
US
3
3
Total S
A
N/A
Total
PUGE
12
Min U
Rwanda 6-3-3-4
6
6
4
Legend: P = Primary, S = Secondary, LS = Lower Secondary, US = Upper Secondary, PUGE = Pre-University General
Education, U = University, Min = minimum, A = Advanced level education
Education Philosophy
The National Vision 2020 envisages a nation with knowledgeable people. In this respect the
Government has set clear milestones on how to build competencies of its people to create a robust
nation with strong economy. It is within Vision 2020 that the economy is expected to be a knowledgedriven economy. The Government proposes to build a world class, higher education system
underpinned by supporting the development of a dynamic, entrepreneurial and internationally
competitive Rwanda through the production of a skilled and educational graduate workforce and the
carrying of research, innovation and knowledge to meet the needs of the economy and enhance the
quality of livelihoods. However, as the President and People of Rwanda start to move towards a new
Rwanda they realize that the higher education landscape must undertake some reforms targeted at
strengthening public universities and linking the education system to the labour market. The
Government acknowledges severe shortage of professional personnel and identifies this as an
obstacle to the development of all sectors. Lack of adequately trained people hampers modernization,
growth and development, and severely constrains the expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors
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2014
of the economy, weakening the social fabric on which the majority of the population takes comfort.
The Government, since 2000, has tried to establish systems and structures for coordinated and
focused training in order to address the skills gaps and skills shortages.
Republic of Rwanda is reviewing its education philosophy to provide for an all inclusive nation where
people are united and using education to create a knowledge society where every citizen is enabled to
build a strong economy - It is an education system for knowledge driven economy and human capital
development at all levels.
Higher Education Infrastructure
The Rwanda Higher Education Law N°27/2013 of 24/05/2013 on Governing Organisation and
Functioning of Higher Education defines a higher education institution as an institution of education
that provides further general, technical or technological training programmes and research at postsecondary education level. The training programmes lead to a degree or a certificate. Within this
definition are universities, colleges and specialised institutions. The university is defined as an
institution of higher learning which provides education in various fields of study and at different
levels. A college, on the other hand, is an institution of higher learning that offers undergraduate and
graduate programs in a given specialized field of study and or a constituent of a university and thus
offering postgraduate programs, while a specialized institute is an institution of higher learning that
offers programs in different specialized fields of study.
The Law provides for three (3) types of institutions of higher learning depending on the form of their
management, viz : (i) Public institutions of higher learning; (ii) Government subsidized institutions of
higher learning; and (iii) Private institutions of higher learning. Within this framework, over the last 20
years, Rwanda has experienced an upsurge in higher education in terms of institutions and student
enrolment. Today there are a total of 31 (17public, 14 private) HEIs. Among the 17 public institutions,
8 are degree awarding and 9 are diploma awarding HEIs with a total population of 83,000 students.
Academic Infrastructure
The Republic of Rwanda has structured its system of Education to responds to the needs of human
capital. Quality education is given special attention at all levels. The Government of Rwanda has
developed several Instruments to guarantee comparable qualifications obtained after completion of
study programmes in any post-secondary institutions. Both public and private Institutions of higher
learning in matters of quality education are regulated by the same policy and law. Higher Education
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policy provides that Higher Education must be first linked with Vision 2020. Consequently, Higher
education Policy clarifies the key roles of higher education stakeholders. In the first instance, higher
education should provide high quality education with internationally recognized qualifications.
Secondly, the institutions, as they carry out the duties of knowledge generation and transmission
must also prepare the students for employability and citizenship. The Government, on its part is
expected to facilitate development of rational higher education system for promotion of sustainable
development and economic. This is regulated through the Council for Higher Education (CHE).
Articles 4 and 5 of Higher Education Law N°27/2013 sets out the objectives and mission of CHE to
enhance quality of education, the modes of proving it within Higher Learning Institutions and make
sure that those graduating from such Institutions are knowledgeable for the betterment of the
Rwandan residents’ welfare and development of Rwanda, above all build confidence and credibility in
the public. Specifically, the CHE is:






To enhance education and research in the higher learning Institutions.
To improve the organization and functioning of higher learning Institutions
To advise the Government in all matters related to higher education policy and strategies.
To norms and standards for accrediting private higher Learning Institutions.
To monitor the adherence of norms and standards in higher Learning Institutions
To compare, evaluate and equivalence to degrees and certificates of Higher education level
delivered by foreign institutions and those delivered in Rwanda that need authentication
including those awarded through distance Learning.
To Coordinate and follow up all activities concerning learning, teaching, evaluation and
performance appraisal in higher Learning Institutions.
To Cooperate and collaborate with other regional and International Institutions having similar
mission.


The CHE, has meanwhile, put in place a mechanism for quality assurance with critical indicators as a
means of describing and maintain academic standards and protocol. These, include among others:






admission criteria for students;
criteria for appointment and promotion of staff;
quality of research facilities their management and research output;
the process for curriculum development;
credit accumulation and transfer system;
Peer review teams, their training and mobilization.
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Higher education institutions are accountable to the stakeholders through HEC. The institutions are
given opportunity to exercise their autonomy within the common higher education legal system.
Despite the strong political will to establish and expand reputable Institutions of higher learning still
Rwanda is facing shortage of critical skills for realization of its RV 2020.
Education-to- Job Creation
It is commonly agreed that the current Global Job market is heavily dominated by private Sector.
International aid is now shifting to aid for trade order to fast-track alleviation of global poverty and
spur economic growth. All aid receiving countries, Rwanda included are being challenged to look at
'aid for trade'33 as financial assistance tool for developing countries' capacity to trade and thereby
build the capacity of the private sector that will guarantee employment of the national workforce.
Rwanda is determined to put into place macroeconomic stabilization policies that are conducive for
private sector development
The higher education is therefore the enabler for private Sector development and growth, and for
employability of the youth. The Vision 2020 counts on private sector for economic growth and
employment of the skilled workforce, the emergence of a innovative education sector :
Not only will such a development be conducive for economic growth, but it will
also ensure the emergence of vibrant middle class of entrepreneurs, which will
help, develop and embed the principle of democracy. Although foreign direct
Investment will be encouraged, a local based business class remains a crucial
component of development (Rwanda Vision 2030).
Productivity and Youth Employment
The Government of Rwanda through the education system is focused on ensuring that growth and
rural development are underpinned by appropriate skills and productive employment, especially for
the growing cohort of youth. The main objective is Creation of at least 200,000 new jobs annually. To
realize this objective, the Government has identified four priority areas as turnkeys. The matrix below
summarizes the priority area with their anticipated outcomes:
33
The Aid for Trade Initiative was first launched in 2005 by the World Trade Organisation and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development.
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Priority
1
2
3
4
Description
Develop skills and attitudes by reviewing
and reforming national education curricula,
establishing
sector
skills
Councils,
strengthening TVET, internships, promoting
adult literacy and short course for basic
skills training, a tripartite funding system
for on-the-job-training, and a youth
entrepreneurship mentoring programme
Promote technology with a focus on
accelerating innovation by internet and
mobile phone Infrastructure and improving
ICT skills.
Stimulate entrepreneurship, access to
finance and business development by
increasing
off
farm
employment,
productivity and new jobs creation driven
by the private sector.
Labour market Interventions Government
will improve the efficiency of labour
markets by assisting job seekers match job
providers through Employment service and
career Advisory Centre’s.
1.
2.
3.
4.
2014
Outcomes
Curricula for educational Institutions
meeting
skills
requirements
of
employers
Graduates prepared for job market with
critical skills needed
Access to skills training for adults
Changing attitudes to work
5. Increased MSME businesses
Within these priority areas, the stakeholders (government, private sector and the higher education
institutions) have identified the required quality and adequate skilled workforce for 2013-2017 as
119, 445 in the following areas - Economic Governance, Rural Development, Productivity and Youth
Empowerment, and Accountable Governance. (for skills levels see
Priory Area for Poverty Reduction
Economic Transformation
Rural Development
Productivity and Youth Employment
Accountable Governance
TOTAL
Number of Persons
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46,832
35, 269
29,918
7,426
119,445
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2014
Workforce Development Authority(WDA)
The main mission of WDA is to implement the national policy guidelines for improving the practical
skills of Rwandan residents for their employability and competitiveness on the labour market through
appropriate technical and Vocational education and training systems. Particularly the WDA is
responsible for the following ten key functions:
1) To coordinate activities related to technical vocational and practical education and training ;
2) To develop curricula and standards for technical vocational and practical education and training;
3) To carry out inspections to ensure that technical vocational and practical education and training
schools comply with applicable standards;
4) To train vocational and technical workers in their respective jobs to upgrade their knowledge
and practical skills;
5) To train teachers engaged in technical vocational and practical education and training and
monitor their teaching methods;
6) To determine technical and vocational education and training levels and related certificates;
7) To sensitize, facilitate and advise investors with regard to investing in technical and vocational
education and training in Rwanda.
8) To promote employment through entrepreneurship development in collaboration with relevant
organs.
9) To set up an appropriate system for preparation and conduct of technical, vocational and
practical education and training examinations, certification and accreditation of technical,
vocational and practical education and training centres meeting requirements.
10) To collaborate with regional or international institutions entrusted with the same mission.
Internationalization of Higher Education
The Higher Education Policy and Laws recognize the importance of harmonization of Rwandan higher
education with other higher education systems in the region and in the World at large. The Policy
clearly stipulates that International transformation of higher education has been driven by several
factors that make higher education relevant to the society. For instance, there is a growing recognition
of the need to train and retrain populations in high-level skills and processes so that they may cope
with expanding demands of knowledge - is no longer fixed it is transient - it is constantly changing and
transforming itself. It is within this context that learning becomes a lifelong endeavor.
Strategic development initiatives oblige Rwanda to continue improving its education system so that
Rwanda attains knowledge based economy. The Government admits that relevance of higher
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2014
education should be determined by generic competences such as problem-solving, learning to learn
and communications.
In order for the knowledge to meet the local conditions and needs the curricula should be out-come
based. The mode of delivery of various curricula should take into consideration the demand of higher
education by majority of populations. Hence provision of diverse learning and training opportunities, a
variety of appropriate courses and curricula, modes and patterns of attendance and qualifications
structure.
It is obvious that study can no longer be time limited and restricted. Study is a continuous process to
be replaced by the practice of lifelong learning. The provision of higher education should produce
skills that meet labour demands. The learning in Rwanda now is competence based and emphasis is
put on student-centered learning, practical oriented learning where industrial attachment internships
and apprenticeship are made compulsory in most of study programmes.
Rwanda Qualifications Framework for Higher Education
The Republic of Rwanda has in place National Qualifications Framework established in 2007. The
purpose of the qualifications framework is to guarantee the attainment of competences at different
levels and facilitate different exits with recognized awards after completion of a specific level(s). The
Qualifications Framework facilitates maximum utilization of the available skills as developed at
different levels of higher education system. It is designed to:
 promotes lifelong learning as someone may stop at certain level and later continue with the
subsequent level. Exit pathways are possible within Qualifications framework and allow the
student to make use of the skills developed join another programmes of study where
comparability of competences is recognized.
 enhance credibility Rwanda Higher Education and set benchmarks for all institutions operating
in Rwanda. International comparability will be easily measured through the qualification
framework.
 be the measurement for academic awards offered by the Institutions of Higher Learning.
 to provide qualifications to ensure that education and training provision is matched to the
Rwanda economic and labour market needs for a skilled and educated workforce.
 enabled students to reach their full potential by signposting progression routes from the
certificate in the higher education to the Doctorate.
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The Implementation of the Qualifications framework is supported by a Code of Practice. The
compliance is obligatory and Council for Higher Education is charged with responsibility of monitoring
the compliance. It is expected all institutions will develop modular programmes of study. The failure to
adhere to the Qualifications Framework may lead to the closure of the study programmes offered by
any institution or the Institution itself.
The Qualifications framework and the Quality Assurance mechanisms are tested and ascertained
through standards as set by National Qualifications Framework. Credit Accumulation and Modular
Scheme (CAMS) are the main elements in the Rwandan Qualification. The Institutions of higher
Learning allow the transfer of credits as programmed according to modules of study.
The qualifications within Qualifications Framework are determined by using two measures:
i. The level of learning outcomes to be achieved.
ii. The volume of the programmes in terms of student credit.
The framework is composed of seven levels. Changes in level are characterized by changes in factors
such as:
 Knowledge and understanding (complexity and depth)
 Professional practice (the range and Sophistication of applied knowledge and
understanding and the extent to which it can be applied in unfamiliar circumstances)
 Generic Cognitive skills example analysis, evaluation and critical skills
 Communication, democracy and IT skills
 Autonomy, self reliance the ability to take responsibility, the ability to work with others
and the ability to judge and take action to satisfy one’s further learning needs.
Level
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Description
For full time University programme corresponds to first year.
Second year
Third year
corresponds to the fourth and final year.
Master’s level.
Doctoral level.
Each institution sets its own standards and academic regulations will for awards corresponding to
levels as exit indicating competence acquired. The awards up to levels are credit based.
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III.
2014
The Emerging Situation
Challenges and Opportunities
Five years after the Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Community Common Market
(PEACCM) was signed (2009) Rwanda, like the other four Partner States of the EAC still faces
challenges in meeting the key pillars of the protocol - the five freedoms and two rights. Its
employment and labour policies and legislation predate the PEACCM and therefore require revision
and harmonization to conform to the changing circumstances.. The five freedoms and two rights of
the Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Community Common Market (PEACCM) touch
on the socio-economic fabric of society and should, of necessity, be incorporated in Rwanda Vision
2030, its revised milestones, and the education sector.
The last two decades have been a period of unprecedented growth in higher education in Rwanda. At
the start of the 2,000s there were a little over 1,800 university students. Today there are slightly over
75,000 in universities dotted around the country and a total of 83,000 in all higher education
institutions of whom 44.3% are female and 55.7% male students. This expansion has provided a
benevolent environment for efforts to widen the social make-up of those participating in higher
education. By the end of 2012 there were 800 male and 600 female students per 100,000 inhabitants
irrespective of their social, political and economic status in society. The majority of students (82.4%)
were enrolled for Bachelor's degrees, while only 0.1% were enrolled for certificate courses. This is
already provides a pointer to the skills balance over the next five years - which will force degree
holders to undertake jobs of technicians, technologists and craftsmen.
There has been a rapid growth in the number of programs that universities offer. Some universities
have maintained relative constant number of programs and as few of 3 while others have seen
programmes emerge and rise to as many 200 programmes. This rapid expansion of university
programs is a spontaneous response to the high demand of university education. With the increasing
large flows of students from schools, popular demand for higher education increased, because of the
hope people have in higher education as a pathway out of poverty. It was apparent from all the
universities visited that the growing number of programs is not out of the university's short-term or
long-term planning based on any skills gap analysis of the labour market.
The question of what happens to students once they leave university and their ability to succeed in
their chosen career is all too often ignored by universities. However, with the entry of the Workforce
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2014
Development Authority, this should change. As the WDA develops its database it is possible to track
each student that completes a course - from artisan to doctorate.
Universities have a crucial role in ensuring that everyone who graduates is equipped with the tools to
succeed in the workplace. Across the higher education sector, there is a growing consensus that
universities have to do more to prepare students for entering employment in addition to supporting
them in achieving a good degree. Employers are looking for experiences that demonstrate
communication, team work and organizational skills. Therefore it is important that every university
should be clear about the workplace capabilities they aim to provide students with.
Skills Gaps and Shortages
The Government conducted a manpower and skills analysis study on skills gaps and shortage. The
results of the study form priority higher education training and research concerns, labour market
development areas, and are being implemented by higher education institutions, the private sector
and the central government. The implementation focuses on skills and competences development and
alignment with business and employment needs towards realization of Vision 2020,
internationalisation and international comparability. The knowledge and Skills developed through
Institutions of Higher Learning are aligned with national skills workforce requirements for transition to
a middle income country. A five year programme for skills development to deliver Economic
Development Strategy II (2013-2018), in this regard, has been developed to address the critical and
scarce skills gaps in the following high priority sectors; (i) Infrastructure, (ii) Agriculture, (iii) Natural
Resources, (iv)Investment Trade and Industry (v) ICT (vi) Health, and (vii) Education. The Strategy has
eight policy action statements:
1. To put in place the National Capacity Building Secretariat (NCBS) for coordination of capacity
building activities within the country.
2. To establish a high level National steering Committee to oversee the Implementation of the skills
development five year programmers.
3. To put in place mechanism for private sector investment in priority skills development.
4. To strengthen the operations of the labour market Information System to take on overarching
and long term perspective.
5. To put in place a national qualification and competency framework.
6. To prepare an annual sector capacity building plan that is based on needs assessment conducted
every five years.
7. To establish Technology and Business Incubation Facilities in the Science and Technology
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2014
oriented institutions of higher learning in Rwanda.
8. To empower National Training Institutions to effectively offer courses in both priority Skills and
specialized skills.
It is expected that after five years from 2013 Rwanda will have knowledgeable, skilled and
resourceful individuals for the achievement of Vision 2020. The country will also be capable to
supply the required skills in the labour Market. The universities, and other higher education
institutions will have embrace and institutionalised the higher education qualifications framework,
which will be an integral part of the education and human resource development process, and will
ensure that education and training systems respond to the identified priority sectors, and only
relevant skills, knowledge, and ultimately competences are provided . The matrix below summarises
the skills requirements to 2018
Skills /Competence Level
Number of Persons Required
1. Required number of skills by graduate level 2013-2018
PhD
Masters
Bachelors
484
1,809
1,260
%
14%
51%
35%
2. Required number of skills at the levels of technicians, artisans short term and specialized training
(2013-2018)
International Certification
Short Term Training
Artisans
TVET Technicians
14,663
102
30,224
47,108
16%
0,0001%
33%
51%
3. Requirements by Sector
Sector
Education Sector Needs
Infrastructure Sector Needs
Health Sector Needs
ICT Sector Needs
Agriculture Sector Needs
Skills/Competence Level Proportion Persons Needed %
PhD
Master
Certificate
Artisan
96%
25%
37%
65%(TVET)
21%(MMET)
92%
65%
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IV.
2014
Lessons and Suggestions for Implementation
The mission of the Government of Rwanda for the education sector is to transform the Rwandan
people into skilled human capital for the socio-economic development of the country ensuring
equitable access to quality education, focusing on combating illiteracy, promotion of science and
technology, critical thinking and positive values.
In an effort to pursue the educational goals of the Government of Rwanda, Economic Development
Strategy II (2013-2018), and the Millennium Development Goals of Education for All by 2015, in
partnership with development partners and private investors, the Ministry of Education has
significantly invested in expanding access to education from 9 years of pre-university general
education to 12 years. This has seen tremendous achievements in student enrolment and in quality
of education. Graduates of the system have received favourable reception in the EAC Partner States.
The structure of the education system in Rwanda has five levels:
Level
Description
1. Pre-Primary
Pre-primary education lasts 3 years. This is education offered at This
Education
nursery schools level, to children aged between 3 and 6 years. It is
designed to encourage the socialisation of children and to stimulate their
senses, operations, persistence, attention, early critical thinking skills and
expressive language by allowing them to live and play with other children
and to practice numerous physical and rhythmic activities.
2. Primary Education
Primary education lasts 6 years and is offered to children of age seven to
twelve years. It is designed to ensure that all children receive civic,
intellectual and physical education. The child, at this stage is prepared for
secondary education. It ends with a national examination which yields
eligibility for Lower Secondary (LS) education studies.
3. Secondary
Secondary (S) education lasts six years and is meant for children of 13 to
Education
18 years. It is divided into two levels: Lower Secondary (LS) 3 years, and
Upper Secondary(US), 3 years each ending with a national examination
respectively to US and Higher Education (HE). Upon completion of LS
students enter different fields of study: science, humanities, linguistics,
teacher training or technical studies.
4. Higher Education
Higher education provides two pathways to students completing US:
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and Tertiary
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5. Adult-Literacy
Education
2014
Education (TE).
 TVET is designed to provide young people and the unemployed with
skills to gain productive employment. It also provides those already in
employment with an opportunity to upgrade their skills, including
entrepreneurs and those wishing to work for themselves. TVET is
taught in Technical Secondary Schools (TSS), and Vocational Training
Centres (VTCs) and Colleges of Technology (CoT). The qualifications
current awarded are Certificate and Diploma.
 TE lasts between two to six years according to the institution and the
field of study and the targeted qualifications level. The qualifications
currently awarded are Diploma, Bachelor , Master, and Doctorate.
Adult-Literacy Education provides an opportunity for adults to acquire
basic writing and reading skills.
Source: Republic of Rwanda, Ministry of Education, 2012 Education Statistics Yearbook, February 2013
This matrix shows that Rwanda has committed to guarantee access to Education for all - both adult
and young populations. The main purpose of promoting accessibility is to equip the workforce with
relevant skills. In order to meet this noble goal quality of Education must be assured - this is why the
Government has established quality standards that must be observed by all education providers.
The Commission for Higher Education (CHE) is charged with regulating higher education in terms of
quality and quantity. At the moment CHE does not have adequate capacity to carry out this duty - it
needs strengthening in strategic, technical, financial, communication and financial capacities, so as to
cope with the dynamics of the industry.
Academic staff are the front-line providers in education. Delivery of quality education is critically
dependent on having a sufficient supply of trained and motivated academic staff. Academic staff
orientation, re-orientation and training and deployment has an important bearing on quality, equity
and learning outcomes. Acute teacher shortages remains a problem which should be addressed
urgently. 2012 data shows that professors make only 2% of the current academic staff, Associate
Professors 3%, Senior Lecturers 8%, Lecturer 29%, Assistant Lecturer 29%, Tutorial Assistants 22%
and Others 7% of the total staff of 3,081 which is 68% short of the required number.
A well educated population will create a new Rwanda. While adult populations will be equipped with
specific skills leading to make their current occupations more productive the rest of the youth and
young population will be given chances of study in vocational Technical and other Institutions of
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Higher Learning promotion of access to adult education for skills development has an direct and
immediate impact on productivity. The young generations are taking the advantage of a small
Country with a strategy to change and improve the workforce skills there is connection between the
public Institution of higher learn post secondary school institutions and the employers. However
better information is required between private Universities and the Government. The Private just
train for the open market they are not directly linked with development strategies.
Design and implementation of qualifications framework is a costly and length venture. Whereas the
some people in the country and higher education institutions may have been involved in the design,
they are only a drop in the ocean. The Government and the higher education institutions shlla set
aside enough funds and technical expertise on rolling out the qualifications framework. This team
should be able to create awareness and to build capacity in higher education institutions to
implement the qualifications framework.
As it is now Rwanda has the commitment and will has the necessary academic Infrastructure to roll
out the qualifications Frame work, and to embrace the regional qualifications framework when it is
ready. The constraint facing Rwanda is that of manpower and financial to ensure effective, efficient
and successful implementation.
V.
A View into the Future
Rwanda has over 7 years trying out the qualifications framework at its public institutions of higher
learning. It has also developed a strong knowledge-base on its higher education institutions.
We note that the current process has been driven from the top, but it is now gaining momentum
because of the active and voluntary participation of all interested partners: higher education
institutions, governments, students and other stake- holders. Top down reforms are not sufficient to
reach the ambitious goals set for 2020. The main challenge is now to ensure that the reforms are fully
integrated into core institutional functions and development processes, to make them self-sustaining.
Universities, especially private universities, must have time to transform legislative changes into
meaningful academic aims and institutional realities.
As the Government and other stakeholders acknowledge the extent of institutional innovation, and
the crucial contribution Rwandan universities are making in short-term to the economy and to the
longer-term development of the emerging Rwanda knowledge society as outlined in the 2013-2018
Development Strategy, through teaching, research and community service (outreach), joint action is
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2014
required between the state, academia and private sector to sustain the momentum and make
meaningful this contribution.
Quality assurance is a major issue in the Rwanda higher education system, and its importance is
increasing with the entry of more players in the higher education system, and as the push for a
knowledge-driven economy becomes a reality. We propose the establishment of a full-fledged quality
assurance authority and a coherent quality assurance policy based on the belief that (i) institutional
autonomy creates and requires responsibility, (ii) universities are responsible for developing internal
quality cultures, and (iii) an progress at national level on the implementation of the qualifications
framework and quality assurance should be all inclusive and involving all stakeholders.
An internal quality culture and effective procedures are the next steps to foster vibrant intellectual
and educational attainment. Effective leadership, management and governance at the higher
education level shall be critical in translating the qualifications framework and quality assurance into
the human resource that Rwanda needs.




The Government has to invest as a public responsibilities in higher education without
discrimination between public and private universities.
With the active contribution of students, universities must monitor and evaluate all their
activities, including study programmes and service departments.
External quality assurance procedures should focus on checking through institutional audit that
internal monitoring has been effectively done; and
Rwanda should take advantage of the Peer Review Initiative started three years ago, to evaluate
and strengthen its QF and QA to enhance academic and organisational quality, develop internal
quality culture, reduce and or eradicate all bureaucracy and cost, and reduce regulation as
productivity and performance take front seat.
For the qualifications framework to be fast-tracked and to take root, Rwanda should me to establish
an independent but multi-faceted Higher Education Quality Committee outside the CHE. Institutions
should feel they have the freedom to manage themselves and rights to express their understanding of
the workings of QA and QF in their institutions. These freedoms and rights should be a demonstration
of their responsiveness to public concerns.
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References
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EAC, The East African Community Industrialisation Policy, 2012-2013
Republic of Rwanda, Rwanda Vision 2020
Republic of Rwanda: 2012 Education Statistics Yearbook, Ministry of Education, Feb. 2013
Republic of Rwanda, Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy 2013-2018 Shaping our Development
Republic of Rwanda: Skills Area and Numbers of Priority Skills Required Across Rwanda, Five Year
Program for Priority Skills Development to Deliver EDPRS II 2013-2018, MIFOTRA & NCBS, April
2012, Ministry of Public Service and Labour
Republic of Rwanda: Higher Education Policy, Ministry of Education, July 2008
Republic of Rwanda, Official Gazette n° Special of 29/05/2013, N°27/2013 of 24/05/2013 Law
governing organisation and functioning of Higher Education
Republic of Rwanda, Official Gazette n° 38 of 23/09/2013, N° 71/2013 of 10/09/2013 Law
establishing the University of Rwanda (UR) and determining its mission, powers, organisation and
functioning
Republic of Rwanda, Official Gazette nº 03 of 16/01/2012
Republic of Rwanda, Official Gazette n° 31 of 30/07/2012: N°23/2012 of 15/06/2012 Law
governing the organization and functioning of Nursery, Primary and Secondary Education…
Republic of Rwanda, Key indicators of the Rwandan Vision 2020
Republic of Rwanda: Rwandan National Qualifications Framework For Higher Education
Institutions, February 2007
Republic of Rwanda, Official Gazette n° 32 of 09/08/2010, N°51/01 of 13/07/2010 Presidential
Order establishing quality standards in higher learning institutions .
Republic of Rwanda, Official Gazette n° Special of 15/11/2011, N°39/2011 of 13/09/2011 Law
establishing the Workforce Development Authority (WDA) and determining its mission,
organization and functioning.
Saint, William; Lao, Christine; & Materu, Peter; Legal Frameworks for Tertiary Education in SubSaharan Africa: The quest for Institutional Responsiveness, World Bank Working Paper # 175, The
World Bank , Washington D.C. 2009.
Persons Interviewed
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Rector, Independent University of Kigali
Gatera Augustin, Director, Rwanda Education Board (REB)
Dr. Simeon Wiehler, Dean , College of Social Sciences(HUYE CAMPUS), University of Rwanda
Dr. Baguma Abdallah, Ag. Directo of Academic Quality ,Higher Education Council (HEC)
Dr. Laetitia Nyinawamwiza, Ag. Rector, Higher Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
(ISAE)
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6) Prof. Manase Mbonye, Principal college of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda.
7) Mr.Manzi Rutayisire Antoine, Director of Advocacy, Communication and Labor Relations, Private
Sector Federation Rwanda (FSP),
8) Mr. Andrew Othieno Rwigyema, Head of Research and Policy Analysis, Private Sector Federation
(FSP) Rwanda.
9) Dr. Zigama Jean Claude, Director of Quality Assurance, College of Agriculture Animal Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda.
10) Mr. Frederick Mugisha, Director of policy planning, Higher Education Council-Rwanda.
11) Dr. Theodore Habimana, Director of Technical Education and Vocational Training, Workforce
Development Authority (WDA)
12) Dr. Prudence Rubigisa, Deputy Vice Chancellor for Finance and Administration, University of
Rwanda.
13) Mr. Magnus Kirori, Huye Campus University of Rwanda
14) Dr. USTA KAITESI, Principal , College of Social Science and Arts
15) Parfait Yangabo, Director of Research, College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary
Medicine.
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TANZANIA
Mohammed Kerre, Charles Kitima, Salim wa-Mwawaza & Malehe Setta
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Political Map of Tanzania
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I.
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Introduction
As the Tanzania economy evolves, there is growing recognition of the importance of an educated
workforce. A key challenge is how to help more people, particularly adults, succeed at the postsecondary level and earn degrees. Countries at all levels of development are finding that adequate
education and skills can improve the employability of workers, the productivity of enterprises and the
inclusiveness of economic growth. This realization has led to increased interest in the formulation of
skills development policies to drive the change necessary to meet development challenges. Many of
these policies, increasingly broad in scope and outreach, are underpinned by efforts to bring the world
of education and training and the world of work closer together. This situational report is part of the
five (five EAC Partner States) country reports designed to inform the development of a regional higher
education qualifications framework.
This particular report looks at why national skills policies matter, what they can achieve, and the key
principles of effective policy development, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation in
Tanzania, as the country strives to develop an education system that is comparable and international
in nature, content and variability.
A well-defined national skills development policy is vital for sustainable and balanced growth. Most
importantly, it provides direction and focus to the skills system. By developing a national qualifications
policy a country can, among others, bring coherence to the system, facilitate coordinated reforms,
and clarify institutional arrangements. Tanzania higher education system benefits from a very
elaborate policy framework34, legal and regulatory system, institutional framework, and strategic
direction. The country has also endorsed three UN conventions35 with bearing on the right to
education for all persons, women and children, and it is implementing the UN Millennium
Development Goals.
Policy development should be founded on social partner involvement, consultative and inclusive but
with leadership, locally grounded and relevant, and underpinned by research. However a policy is only
as effective as its implementation. Setting achievement targets, developing clear implementation
plans and identifying a lead agency or ministry responsible for implementation are important.
34 A number of policy instruments starting with the Arusha Declaration 1967, United Republic Development Vision 2025, and the Zanzibar Vision 2020,
and support by The Zanzibar Education Policy 2006, National Higher Education Policy 1999, and The Technical Education and Training Policy in Tanzania
1996
35 These Conventions include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women 1979,
and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
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Advocacy and financial support for target groups will ensure that there is sufficient uptake of new
programmes. Finally, a good monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system allows the policy to be
objectively assessed and provide feedback for future policy reforms.
Skills are fundamental for individual employability and national competitiveness; a sound and well
balanced skills development policy can assist a country in achieving those objectives. Current market
complaints are that the current academic programmes focus primarily on subject-matter knowledge,
and that students often tend to enter the job market without well developed skills to complement
their content knowledge. Therefore, it is important to identify not only the skills needed by higher
education graduates but also how the development of these skills can be fostered within business and
employment. To address this Tanzania has developed a National Qualifications Framework (NQF),
Practical Technical Training Framework (PTTF) and the University Qualifications Framework (UQF), and
supporting policies and guidelines. In addition it has established and recognized centres of excellence
in different areas of specialised study programs and research.
To ensure the education policies and related legal and regulatory systems work for the citizens, and
especially the children and youth of the country, the people of Tanzania have the Tanzania
Commission for Universities (TCU) and the National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) in
addition to the Ministries of Education, and Communication Science and Technology.
Sometimes the implementation of what would have been good policies, legal and regulatory
processes, has been affected by creation of institutions with conflicting mandates or scattering the
mandates meant to promote education to too many ministries, departments and agencies (MDA), yet
one centre would bring harmony and ease implementation. Often this has been done to satisfy
political expedience, rather than promote efficiency, effectiveness and good governance and enhance
productivity.
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2014
United Republic of Tanzania Education System
Education Philosophy
The United Republic of Tanzania includes Tanzania Mainland and Tanzania Zanzibar. In 1967 the
country declared Education for Self-Reliance geared towards equitable access, education quality and
enhancement of science and technology in socio-economic development to meet basic needs leading
to wealth creation and improvement of the welfare for all.
The national education philosophy points towards emphasizing programmes and process, at higher
education level, that are alert and responsive to the ever changing world of science and technology
and corresponding dynamic and diverse needs of the people of Tanzania, their government, industry,
commerce and the environment. The higher education programmes and delivery modes must be
cognizant of the wealth of Tanzania (founded in its natural environment and people), and seek to
grow and protect it for posterity. It is for this purpose that higher education institutions should, in
their planning and implementation of programs, adopt bottom-up approach to solicit ideas from
various levels and to deepen ownership of their products.
Education Landscape
Tanzania has, since 2008, implemented an education system organized into four subsectors (i) basic
education, that comprises preprimary, primary, secondary, teacher training, adult education and nonformal; (ii) folk education; (iii) technical and vocational education and training (TVET); and (iv) higher
education (university and non-university). In its Development Vision 2025 the United Republic of
Tanzania proposes to utilize knowledge in mobilizing domestic resources in the provision of basic
needs and for attaining creativity, innovativeness and a higher level of quality education in order to
respond to development challenges and effectively compete at regional and international levels,
cognizant of the reality that competitive leadership in the 21 st century will hinge on the level and
quality of education and knowledge. These have become the motivation in the management and
development of education in Tanzania, which has witnessed the enactment and implementation of
policies, rules and regulations, strategies and programmes leading to PTTF and UQF. In line with this,
Tanzania is implementing twin education systems with two distinct characteristics (i) knowledgebased education and training (K-BET), and (ii) skills-based education training (S-BET) from lower level
education to higher education. In addition, the education system, has since 2011 recognized prior
learning, in its human capital development.
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Higher Education Infrastructure
There are two distinct levels of training institutions in higher education provision in Tanzania. These
are (i) academic full-professional training, commonly referred to as knowledge-based training
institutions and represented by universities at the highest level, and (ii) intermediary professional
education and training institutions (skills based training). The National Education Policy (1999)
provides that the differences between universities as institutions of higher learning and the
intermediary non-university institutions of higher education shall be based on the major mission of
pursuit, entry requirements and qualification, and the type of accredited award conferrable.
The higher education infrastructure has grown from one public university college admitting only 14
students in 1970 to eleven (11) public universities and twenty two (22) private universities with over
580 programmes and more than 168,000 learners. This growth has been necessitated by (i) reforms in
primary and secondary education resulting in large numbers of potential entrants to higher education,
(ii) increasing demands for personnel with higher education background both from the public and
private sectors.
Even with growing infrastructure Tanzania still experiences a number of challenges among them
constraint enrolment expansion with rising levels of attrition, an imbalance in student intakes
between the sciences and the liberal arts, and finally inadequate financing and material facilitation of
higher education (both technical and regular).
Higher Education Academic Infrastructure Development
Higher education academic infrastructure are an essential part of any university, and serve to
establish the framework for university operations, helping to set effective procedures and governance
practices. Academic infrastructure exist to ensure that the higher education institution's processes
align with its strategic directions, core principles, regulatory and governance responsibilities, and
opportunities for change. However, developing higher education academic infrastructure can be a
lengthy process requiring extensive planning, research, and consultation prior to approval and
implementation.
Tanzania Development Vision 2025, and Zanzibar Vision 2020 emphasize the creation of a united
republic of people ingrained with a development mindset and competitive spirit. This is assumed to
come as a result of access to quality education and to contribute towards translating the United
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Republic of Tanzania into a knowledge-based and technology driven nation. To facilitate this process
the United Republic of Tanzania has put the following academic infrastructure into place:
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Institutional Infrastructure: (i) Two ministries supporting education - The Ministry of Education
and Vocational Training, and the Ministry of Communication Science and Technology; (ii) Two
Councils: Tanzania Council for Universities and the National Council for Technical Education
Policy Framework: (i) Draft legal framework to operationalise UQF is in place, awaiting cabinet
and parliament deliberations.
Qualifications Frameworks: Three pieces (i) National Qualifications Framework; (ii) Practical
Technical Training Framework (PTTF); and (iii) University Qualifications Framework (UQF)
Admissions Guidebook for Higher Education Institutions in Tanzania
With the implementation of a qualifications framework, higher education awarding bodies are to use
this infrastructure in the management of standards and quality of their programmes and awards. At
the same time, government will use this infrastructure as a reference point in reviewing the
effectiveness of HEIs’ management of academic standards and the quality of learning opportunities.
Of particular importance are benchmarking statements, and programme specifications that interact,
linking the nationally agreed framework, subject communities and institutions. However, within their
current capacity, NACTE and TCU will be overstretched and may not be effective. It is on this basis that
the Tanzania Government is considering a legislation and strengthen institutional framework to
manage the administration of qualifications.
The Division of Knowledge and Competence
In our assessment of the Tanzania situation we sought to understand the closeness of the match
between what employers seek in applicants to entry level jobs and the emphasis given to these skills
in education and training at higher education level programmes. Rather than looking at how
effectively these programs serve their students in terms of academic requirements, course content,
and intellectual enrichment, we focused on their role in facilitating the development of a broad range
of skills. From this position we could view the programs from the skills and competences needed to
perform entry level jobs and simultaneously enhance future job performance instead of focusing on
the subject matter of knowledge.
We therefore focused on two important components of the education system (i) the division of
knowledge and competence, and (ii) the tightness of the link between the labour market needs and
the education program outcomes.
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First we examine the K-BET and the division of knowledge. We have divided knowledge gained
through higher education into two categories: substantive and enabling. For purposes of this study we
see substantive knowledge, which embraces concepts, theories, analytical tools, and what we define
as the subject matter of the field or area of discipline, and conveyed through texts and course
lectures, to dominate the higher education human resource development process. Mastering
substantive knowledge requires intensive individual study. Most of the higher education institutions in
the country are focusing on delivery of substantive knowledge.
Enabling knowledge, on the other hand represents the
The NMAISTs concept is value-addition to
skills individuals possess that allow them to apply their
human capital and natural resources for
substantive knowledge and at the same time gain
sustainable development of sub-Saharan
Africa. To be successful and use innovation
expertise in applying that knowledge. The importance of
to best effect, we must ensure that all
enabling knowledge is seen in the skills and
young people have an opportunity to learn
proficiencies36 that should be developed by academic
science at school and understand its impact
programmes for successful labour market performance.
on society at large. We should help to build
Nelson Mandela University in Arusha is the model
opportunities for scientific careers,
strengthen scientific networks and research
university in this area, with its focus on Master and
institutions and encourage scientific
Doctoral post-doctoral programs, with emphasis on skills
expertise in government, business and in
accumulation, science, technology and innovation37. Next
development organisations.
in value to Mandela, but implementing conventional
Prof. Burton Mwamila, VC Nelson Mandela
African Institute of Science & Technology,
delivery model is the Tumaini University Makumira, with
December 17, 2013
elaborate undergraduate programmes designed around
human potential development matrix and delivered with comprehensive student participation.
The price tag that comes with academic programmes established to train human resources for the
labour market is that they view potential employers of their graduates as their program's customers.
Regardless of how these programs are assessed and evaluated within the confines of institutions of
higher education, no program can deviate too far from satisfying the needs of the labour market.
Today, an almost inevitable tension exists between what employers want in the way of skills
development and what the higher education institutions in Tanzania provide, through their
programmes, with the learners caught in the middle. The majority, if not all, higher education
36
It is assumed that programme providers would carry out an assessment of student needs vis-a-vis market needs and develop
appropriate programmes to tap the student competencies for the labour market. However, the current process requires students to fit
in the study programmes and by extension meet the expectations of the labour market.
37 Universities lie at the heart of scientific advancements. But the issues of science and its relationship to society goes much deeper than
simply the generation of new ideas. Therefore, governments must recognize that if university research is to be used for greater social
benefit then they need to take the lead.
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providers still do not view employers and graduates as customers. They are yet to appreciate this
trend of thought in their design and delivery training programmes38.
Second, Skills-based method (S-BET) focuses on mastering specific skills or standards rather than
completing course work over a specific period of time. It is intended to be an institutional
process that moves education from focusing on what academics believe graduates need to know to
what students need to know and be able to do in varying and complex situations. It is focused on
prospects that are linked to workforce needs, as defined by employers and the profession. Its
outcomes are increasingly complex in nature, rather than deriving from the addition of multiple lowlevel objectives. S-BET often necessitates more complex assessment, involving portfolios, experiential
learning assessment in field experience, demonstration in varying contexts, role play, and use of
standardized customers.
We could see from our discussions with various stakeholders that there is a belief that skills-based
training is actually competence-based training (C-BET). One could not be far from the truth, just as
knowledge-based education is also competence-based education. However, the common
denominator or secrete in both cases is in the design and delivery process. We noted a lot of
similarities in the aims, objectives and expected career paths of those completing programs in K-BET
and S-BET.
We could understand that this is a new paradigm that some find difficult to understand and accept. At
the same time everyone wants to be in the lead, and therefore, if C-BET is the new baby on the
block, we all want to be there!
The Link Between the Labour Market Needs and the Education Program Outcomes.
The process of moving to a competency-based system requires developing course competencies,
mapping the competencies to the discipline, institution and designing units using a competency
framework. Assessment literacy is critical as a well-designed unit will meet the criteria for learning
at deep levels of understanding. It is in this respect that the Tanzania Ministry of Education is
calling for pedagogy training for all lecturers39, and Muhimbili University of Health and Allied
Sciences (MUHAS) has already instituted medical professionals education training programs to
ensure that the lecturers are able to interact properly with learners. Both the Ministry and
38
This has, as a result affected the design and delivery of programmes, which has witnessed little if any student/learner and employer
participation in development and delivery of programmes, assessment, examination and determination of awards.
39
This echoes the concerns of participants at the 2013 ACADEMIA-PRIVATE Sector Partnerships Forum and Exhibition held in Nairobi October 23-26, 2013.
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MUHAS understand that competency-based education includes two learning modes competency-based and personalized learning, which are intertwined.
Competency-based learning identifies specific and measurable learning objectives that students must
master before moving ahead. This must be done at entry into a programme. However, none of the
existing institutions attempts to understand the student/learner
before they enroll in a programme or commit to a course.
Assessment of the student/learner before the program starts
and as part of entry into a program is meaningful, promotes
Competency-based education :
active participation, responsibility and leads to a positive
 it offers opportunity for all
students, not just the advanced
learning experience.

and those who are struggling;
it is student-centered; and
students can work on specific
skills or knowledge until they can
demonstrate their understanding
and ability to apply them

Competency means not only learning content, but also the
ability to apply that content to solve problems or
communicate about it. Personalized learning creates a datadriven framework to set individual student goals, assess
progress and ensure that students receive the academic and
developmental supports they need. As a result large skill sets
are broken down into competencies, which may have sequential levels of mastery. As learning
progresses competencies reinforce one another from basic to advanced; the impact of increasing
competencies is synergistic, and the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. This is what creates
thinkers, innovators, leaders and champions.
The Use of Competencies and Progress toward a Degree
The TCU has provided generic guidelines on entry routes into higher education, type of higher
education delivery modes and minimum entry requirements. Based on these guidelines each higher
education institution has determined its own admission regulations and student growth paths.
Competencies within different contexts may require different bundles of skills, knowledge and
attitudes. The challenge is to determine which competencies can be bundled together to provide the
optimal grouping for performing tasks40. Another challenge is designing learning experiences that
support students as they practice using and applying these competencies in different contexts.
Continual refinement of defined competencies is necessary so that enhanced performance in a variety
of contexts can be assessed. In essence, C-BET is a process, not a product. In addition curriculum can
40
Having defined the competencies, skills and behaviours required it is possible to target the design of curricula and development programs to address
these requirements.
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be developed in a modularised fashion by competency, allowing the institution/organisation to quickly
assemble a program of learning that is specifically tailored to address identified skills and
qualifications gaps.
We noted competence frameworks within regular course-based programmes in several higher
education institutions visited in Tanzania. However we could detect some differences.
(i)
One group of institutions uses competency frameworks in the context of a course-based system,
where students take the same kinds of courses that have always been offered by colleges and
universities: instructor-led and credit-hour based. In this category many institutions that are
designed around courses and credit hours have embraced an objectives-approach for their
programmes. Each institution or programme has identified what the intended learning
objectives are for students graduating with a degree from the institution. A review of catalogues
and prospectus reveal statements such as, "a sound and well articulated technical education ....",
"to provide basic knowledge and practical skills necessary for .....". They in fact take this
approach to the course level, articulating the specific learning aims and objectives that students
are expected to realize at the end of a given course, rather than the learning outcomes that
students are expected to have at the end the course. Both the University of Dar es Salaam and
the Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology are good examples of this kind of approach.
(ii)
Another group of institutions uses competency frameworks as a tool to new and innovative
ways, and to better prepare students for success in higher education institutions and their
careers. Some individual schools, colleges and universities are moving ahead with this innovative
approach where achievement is the constant and time is the variable. These institutions
recognise that not all students learn at the same rate, or in the same way, so flexible models that
adjust to the needs of students can help more students succeed. A model institution in this
category is the MUHAS, which adopted C-BET framework in order to offer a very different
curriculum from conventional course-based models, now stands out as a professional medical
university that allows students to graduate by demonstrating competencies, based on seven (7)
principles.
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MUHAS seven Principles of Transformation from Conventional to Competency-Based
1. Curricula are crafted to ensure that graduates are equipped to provide the best quality
and most appropriate health care to the people of Tanzania.
2. Curricula review and revision are coordinated across schools, and every opportunity is
sought for synergies and efficiencies in teaching and assessment of students across
professions.
3. Curricula review and revision involve an inclusive process engaging as many stakeholders
as possible, inside and outside MUHAS.
4. Curricula are competency-based with measurable milestones for achievement of
learning by students.
5. Curricula are efficient in reducing content overlaps and redundancies, making best use of
faculty and student time
6. Traditional methods of teaching and assessment are complemented by innovative and
appropriate methods as resources allow.
7. MUHAS provides faculty with developmental and technical support throughout the
curricular review, revision process, and implementation.
Journal of Public Health Policy, Volume 33, Supplement 1 (2012), s69
(iii) Another set of universities has build strong linkages with the private sector and employers
allowing students to acquire enhanced internship programmes designed to inculcate practical
training and competence based training. For instance Sokoine University of Agriculture has a
structured internship and placement programme that allows its students and graduates to
access private sector attachment and placement opportunities.
Some of the examples described in this paper show that it is possible for students to earn degrees by
demonstrating competencies alone. At the Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology (DIT), although the
design of programs is objectives-led, the delivery model allows the students to progress toward a
degree by demonstrating the competencies required for the degree. They can do this by taking
courses that are related to those competencies or by preparing portfolios that demonstrate mastery
of those competencies through prior learning (with minimal required coursework). In contrast, in the
competency-based health and medical programs at MUHAS, traditional forms standardized exams,
challenge exams, evaluation of external training, and portfolio assessments are not options, and yet
the focus on competencies, rather than on seat time, allows the student to progress toward a degree
more efficiently. While neither the DIT nor MUHAS model offers the same kind of transferability of
learning between institutions, their examples show that competency-based education is not just
about moving beyond a credit-based system. It is also about advancing multiple visions for what
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higher education could be in the future of Tanzania, a philosophy and practice also embraced by the
Hubert Kairuki Memorial University (HKMU).
At firm or employer level, many organizations have not established comprehensive competency-based
employee development programs in high need areas. As a result it is difficult to identify programs
which are staged development initiatives that include: formal in-class learning events; planned work
assignments aimed at developing certain skills and competencies; self-study components; and, formal
assessment to evaluate progress in development as well as to accredit or certify that the employee
has gained required competencies and knowledge. We also noted that staff training and development
programs carried out at corporate level in most cases were neither accredited nor delivered by
accredited and certified trainers. However, there was expressed need by organisations that
employers should move to this model of employee development to address current or looming
shortages of staff and to ensure that there is a continuing supply of qualified staff to meet future
organizational needs. This approach would also demonstrate to employees that the organization is
committed to their development and advancement within the organization.
III.
The Emerging Situation
Challenges and Opportunities
Tanzania is emerging from long decades of state control and socialism. Since the early 1990s it
unleashed the inherent strengths of its economy by privatizing state-owned industries and
implementing labour reforms. This has attracted a flood of capital and foreign direct investment (FDI)
that has helped drive productivity improvements and rising per capita gross domestic product (GDP).
A closer look at the economy reveals that the biggest portion of the GDP growth was heavily
dependent on consumption; the majority of private sector is micro and small enterprises mostly
informal and locally owned, the majority of the medium and large enterprises are foreign owned with
restricted local labour intake41; the future of Tanzania lies in the proper exploitation of its natural
environment (minerals, wildlife, tourism, forestry and agriculture) and a highly educated and informed
population. Whereas these could be said to be the challenges, Tanzania is seen to face three major
opportunities that can help transform its economy into a force to reckon in the region and beyond.
41
The Confederation of Tanzania Industries has observed that the growth in private sector enterprises does not match the growth in labour intake. This is
explained by the fact that most of the growth oriented new investments are foreign and their preference for labour is skewed towards the foreign
market.
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First, advances in science, technology, and engineering worldwide offer Tanzania new tools
needed to promote sustainable extraction of its natural resources and sustainable growth in
agriculture;
Second, the EAC as a common market provides new incentives for Tanzania to sustainably
engage its huge agricultural sector potential for agricultural production and trade; and
Third, Tanzania should try to focus on long-term economic transformation both in its policies and
actions. This should align its development desires to science, technology, and engineering in
resources management and productivity.
Skills Gaps
The skills gap is an issue that warrants immediate attention – Tanzania's economic competitiveness
and national security depend on having a readied workforce42. Now more than ever, business and
education must partner to ensure that students are being prepared for entrance into college and the
innovation economy. In Tanzania today the speed of business is changing faster than ever and the
education and social systems cannot keep the pace, so that if the current education and labour
market trends continue, Tanzania will face a major deficit of middle level workers43 in the next five
years and beyond. Over 80 per cent of enterprises of the fastest growing and high-wage jobs will
require at least a two-year university education44. In that same period of time, 93 percent of jobs in
the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics occupations will require postsecondary education. By 2025 throughout both in Tanzania Mainland and Tanzania Zanzibar, nearly
two times as many jobs requiring university education will exist as compared to jobs for those with a
high school education or less.
The skills deficiencies go beyond those related to specific occupations. The labour market is also
concerned about the lack of increasingly important “soft skills” – communication, collaboration and
critical thinking – required for virtually any occupation in today’s world. Nationally, the two employer
organisations of Association of Tanzania Employers (ATE) and Zanzibar Employers Association
(ZANEMA), and the Confederation of Tanzania Industries (CTI) believe that soft skills will become even
more important in the next three to five years because of increased regional cooperation, global
competition and the pace of change in the business environment.
42
The lack of skilled workforce comes at a high cost for individuals, businesses and the economy
Middle-skills workers include registered nurses, health technicians, carpenters, construction workers, installation/material moving workers, among
other groups.
44 These are the enterprises currently defined as "informal" yet on an annual basis they provide more than 80% of all new jobs created, and by all means
the informal service economy is pulling the modern manufacturing economy.
43
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Jobs that are heavily reliant on technology are growing fast. Workers often need post-secondary
education to capitalize on these types of jobs. In fact, by 2025, 93 percent of all new jobs will require
post-secondary education, and 71 percent will require a bachelor’s degree or higher. Health care jobs
are also growing in Tanzania, 84 percent will requiring some post-secondary education. Over half of
Tanzania's health facilities have difficulty recruiting doctors and experienced nurses in upcountry and
remote districts. A shortage of nurses with the right experience is often cited as the primary reason
for 64 percent of hospitals with recruiting problems. Tourism and hospitality industry related skills are
also indicated as being critical to the development of the economies of Zanzibar and Tanzania
mainland, yet the current output and attendant quality are not near to meeting the demand. To reach
this workforce need, the Tanzania system of higher education will have to accelerate its current
output of higher education degrees and credentials. At the same time, the government will take
deliberate steps to ensure that enough community schools/colleges/universities are developed in the
upcountry and remote districts. Experience worldwide has shown that community colleges are a great
resource to rural, remote and exclude community development.
To assemble a comprehensive list of skills needed by higher education graduates and graduates from
professional occupations we engaged our key informants and matrix 1 summarises the findings
Matrix 1: Comprehensive List of Skills and Competencies
Behavioural Skills
 Communication Skills - Presentation
 Active Listening Skills
 Research Skills
 Adaptability Skills
 Resourcefulness
 Decision Making Skills
Technical
 Facilitation Skills
 Computer Skills
 self-motivation,
 Transport and logistics management
 learning agility,
Procurement
 Risk Taking
 Organisation Skills
 Sensitivity To Diversity
 Organizational Dynamics
 Team Skills
 Leadership Skills
 self-awareness
 Negotiation Skills
 Planning Skills
Cognitive
 Analytical Skills
 agriculture value chain
 Creativity
 Hospitality
 Communication Skills - Oral
 pedagogy
 Communication Skills - Written
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Matrix 2 summarises the middle-skills jobs Tanzania Cannot Move Without
 Teacher
 Dental hygienist
 Police Officer
 Medical laboratory technicians
 Carpenter
 heating and AC installer
 Electrician
 industrial machinery mechanic
 Plumber
 motor vehicle mechanic
 registered nurse,
 machinists
 mid-wife
 legal secretary
 health technician,
 accountant
 construction worker
 computer support specialist
 exploration technology
The increased skill levels for future jobs directly correlates to increased educational requirements for
those jobs. The anticipated growth rates for occupations for Tanzania are skewed towards jobs that
are either highly skilled – needing a bachelor’s degree or above – or middle skilled – requiring more
than a high school certificate but less than a three-year degree. By 2020 throughout the country,
nearly two times as many jobs requiring post-secondary education will exist as compared to jobs for
those with a high school education or less. Similarly, by 2025, about 81 percent of the fastest growing
occupations that have above-average wages will be jobs that require a post-secondary education of a
diplomas or higher.
The educational mismatch in Tanzania is dire. There will be 2.5 million total job vacancies in Tanzania
between 2014 and 2025, from new jobs and job openings due to retirements and career switches. In
contrast, between 2014 and 2025, occupations requiring at least an diploma are projected to grow
three times faster than occupations that only require on-the-job training. And by 2025, 70 percent of
all jobs in Tanzania will require some post-secondary education, but only 1.5 percent of Tanzania 25 or
older have a diploma certificate or higher. The fastest growing occupations that are likely to be
hardest hit include registered nurses, nursing aides and attendants, accountants and auditors,
computer software engineers, and elementary school teachers, and technologists in the emerging
industries of exploration and earth sciences and engineering.
Changing Course
As Tanzania wrestles with the vitally important debate on education reform, businesses know that
career relevance must be incorporated into the classroom. Too many students do not understand why
they need to know what they are being taught, lose interest in studies and then do not develop the
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deeper learning skills employers expect them to have. Innovative high education models help students
stay engaged in studies so they graduate with a concrete understanding of what they will need to
succeed in the workforce and thus better ensuring Tanzania businesses have a workforce armed with
the skills required in a global marketplace. It is therefore important for the Tanzania government to
embraced the fact that the dynamics of society have changed from strong boundaries between
separate institutional spheres and organizations to a more flexible overlapping system, with each
actor taking the role of the other. This dynamism has redefined the role of:
(a) The Academia as a creator of firms/enterprises through innovation incubator facilities, and
centres of excellence for innovation and entrepreneurship development, and not just a provider
of education, training, research and technology (an approach already adopted by NM-AIST);
(b) Industry as an educator and trainer, whose entry into the education and training sphere would be
based on structured internships and fellowships, academia/industry personnel exchange
programmes, and the creation of professorial chairs, and not just supplier of goods and services;
and
(c) The State as the venture capitalist through (i) innovative financing programs, and (ii) creation of
supportive environment for the sustainable growth of collaborative research and development
among firms, universities and national laboratories to address issues of national competitiveness
and not just the guardian of political will.
It is in this respect that development of human resource of Tanzania and creation of knowledge is the
responsibility of the tripartite relationship of the state, academia and the labour market. This
relationship need to be defined through a formal policy framework and institutional arrangement,
which will ensure sustainable human resource development and knowledge creation and transfer for
growth and development.
Developing Deeper Learning Skills
Business leaders know that young people entering college and the workforce need a mastery of core
academic subjects. But they need more critical thinking and problem solving skills necessary to find
answers to challenges that cannot be found in an examination room. Part of those skills come from
learning how to learn - knowing how to find out what they do not already know. They will need
effective written and verbal skills to work as part of team, or to interact with the public. And to work
as a team, they will have to master collaboration skills such as interpreting other messages and
responding appropriately.
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This preparation includes going beyond rote learning to transfer what they have learned in one
subject and apply it in novel ways or different settings in the workplace. It also requires the ability to
regulate one’s own behavior and emotions to reach goals. Research cited by the US National Research
Council, for example, shows that being conscientious – “being organized, responsible, and
hardworking– [has] the strongest correlation with desirable work and educational outcomes
[whereas] anti-social behavior … is negatively correlated with these [desirable] outcomes.” These are
skills that can be taught and reinforced, especially in the workforce. All of this goes beyond “textbook”
learning and lectures to provide students and workers with the skills now needed in a competitive
global market.45 Discussions with employers has also revealed that the five most important leadership
competencies desired in people entering the workforce today are communication skills, selfmotivation, learning agility, self-awareness, and adaptability. Whether these are the qualities
companies actually are hiring for is an important question, but these are certainly not all qualities that
are the core focus of typical high school or college curricula. While employers are impressed with the
incoming generation’s technology savvy, they see younger workers as overly dependent on
technology for communication and less skilled or willing to communicate face to face46.
Tanzania runs the risk of falling behind when it comes to preparing the future workforce to compete
successfully in a global economy. To meet the future demands of a more skilled and educated
workforce, policy-makers should make sure Tanzania invests in what really works and include
promising and evidence-based approaches that will ensure young people enter the workforce with the
skills Tanzania businesses need. Higher education should be encouraged in fully implementing the
Tanzania UQF and the PTTF and aligned assessments. It will also be important for the government to
grant its HEIs greater flexibility to incorporate proven and promising education models using deeper
learning into their study programmes.
In addition, it will be necessary for Tanzania to establish a national workforce development
program/authority bringing together the academia-public- private sector on manpower development.
They can draw on their existing resources, and state funding, to follow this through. The first
assignment of this program will be to establish skills gaps and in collaboration with the proposed
Education Design Team prepare appropriate programs to address this. If the Government is serious
about securing Tanzania’s economic future it must act now to get the country's businesses the highlyskilled workforce it need to innovate and grow in the regional and global marketplace.
45
This paragraph explaining deeper learning or “21st century skills” is drawn from a National brief: National Research Council. (2012). Education for life
and work: Developing transferrable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. [Report brief]. Washington DC: The National Academies Press.
46 The young people today may not be receiving the help they need in terms of training, mentoring, or coaching to become leaders needed for tomorrow.
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IV.
2014
Lessons and Suggestions for Implementation
The debate persists on whether skills-based training is better than course-based training, and whether
the institutions pursuing these lines of training should develop parallel qualifications frameworks. The
answer is in the implementation of competence-based education which is embedded in the education
philosophy of the country.
In this respect, therefore,
(i)
Tanzania through the TCU and NACTE will establish an Education Design Team to continue to
explore competency-based education systems in Tanzania and around the globe and apply their
findings to policy recommendations and statute or regulation revisions to assist the country in its
efforts to move to implementation and a mastery system.
(ii) Tanzania should urgently carry out a manpower survey clearly detailing skills gaps and required
intervention from the state, private sector and academia,
(iii) In addition, it is important to understand and recognize that:
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Student voice is crucial in planning competency-/ mastery-based programs designed to
produce human resource factor that is industry driven, productivity oriented and performance
focused.
There is a need for more effective communication between the education community and
business community to determine what students need to know and be able to do to be
successful in the workforce. This could be accomplished by bringing together all stakeholders
to plan for improvement with a focus on closing achievement gaps based on identified needs.
Resources need to be restructured to support individual learning
Competency-based systems need multiple types of assessments with multiple purposes.
Seat time requirements and funding formulas need to change so that learning can be
experienced anywhere.
Competency-based learning is more open to interdisciplinary learning and focuses more on
problem solving and critical thinking than traditional “sit and get” learning.
Moving to a competency-based system will require a massive educational process involving
parents, teachers, district personnel, community and business leaders, and students.
Tanzania needs to rethink its standards and course expectations to move away from rote
memory and incorporate essential skills.
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2014
Connections need to be made to holiday learning camps47, internships and apprenticeships,
and other extended learning opportunities that can lead to awarding credit for mastery of
subject matter.
Competencies must be defined and assessments will follow.
The role of teachers needs to be re-defined and teacher credentialing needs to be revised to
reflect the new normal.
Certified and classified staff at the district and school level must be involved in the designing of
a competency-based system; this cannot be a top-down process.
There needs to be a reassessment of the connection between money and learning.
Teacher preparation programs must train future educators to collaborate and to direct and
facilitate project-based learning.
Students must be provided opportunities to take ownership of their learning.
The current assessment system is providing the wrong incentives for students.
(iv) Tanzania must be prepared to invest heavily in transition from the current objective based system
of education and higher education levels to outcome-based system. This will ensure the relevant
institutions re-examine themselves in terms of programs, their design, delivery, examination and
award of qualifications in line with the new thinking and are able to effectively work within a
higher education qualifications framework.
V.
A View to the Future
The United Republic of Tanzania is exploring competency-based education as a way to better prepare
students for success in college and their careers. Some individual higher education institutions are
moving ahead with this innovative approach where achievement is the constant and time is the
variable. Not all students learn at the same rate, or in the same way, so flexible models that adjust to
the needs of students can help more students succeed.
Traditional education does not meet the needs of Tanzania any more. Students/learners who drop
out or fall behind may never reach their full potential as adults, yet others who graduate from higher
education institutions may not be prepared for further studies or the labour market/careers.
Therefore, innovative approaches are required to meet the needs of these students/learners so that
they are able to demonstrate critical thinking and problem solving skills. Students can no longer
47
We note that most universities outside Dar are constructed in strategic vantage districts with great scenic features suitable for holiday camps and
holiday learning programs that would greatly enhance student and learner life development competences and skills.
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advance through the education system simply by showing up for class for a specified number of days
and earning a minimum grade. The Tanzania society and its economy demand more.
The proposed Tanzania University Qualifications Framework (UQF) provides an opportunity to think in
terms of competencies, rather than the time-based education unit system. However, the
implementation faces a number of challenges other than the current fears and perceptions. These
challenges include
1. This is a new paradigm that some people and institutions would find difficult to comprehend
and embrace, and therefore would continue implementing in the "old school' way. Yet, the
process of moving to a competency-based system requires developing course competencies,
mapping the competencies to the discipline, school and college, the country and designing units
using a competency framework. Assessment literacy is critical as a well-designed unit will meet
the criteria for learning at deep levels of understanding.
2. Another challenge is developing authentic assessments to measure the skills required.
This is not a skill university lecturers learn in college, but they can be taught how to develop
those assessments to measure milestones along the way to mastery.
3. Giving students more support requires resources:
 Successful programs have included remedial sessions
 Lecturers need training to create authentic assessments. Guidance counselors need
professional development to help students/learners explore their options.
 Higher Education providers must think in innovative ways to design programs that meet
student/learner needs and are market led.
 This approach works best when stakeholders collaborate for learning.
4.
Standards-based tests can have the unintended consequence of narrowing the focus to
memorizing facts, rather than measuring higher order thinking skills. This in effect must be what
is making employers believe university graduates are not ready for the market:
 Use of lower-stakes formative assessments will more accurately diagnose student progress.
 A variety of assessments can measure problem- solving and other higher ordered skills that
are more difficult to evaluate on standardized tests.
 It is a challenge to find published curricula that fit the specific needs of competency
education. Teachers and students in institutions that use competency-based approaches
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explicitly engage in activities designed to clarify and demystify both the learning targets
themselves and student progress towards their mastery.
5. Competency-based systems rely on sophisticated and robust data systems: which must be
developed in earnest
 Data systems need to link the architecture of two information systems: a student
information system of data that supports principals, teachers and students and a learning
management system that maintains curricula, standards and competencies and defining
descriptors.
 The use of technology to manage data around individualized student learning is critical to
managing the processes, learning objectives, assessment models, rubrics, and performance
data in a competency-based education system.
6. Competency-based systems will also require more deliberate engagement and
reward
or
organizations or people outside the institutions who contribute to the student’s progress
through properly structured internship programmes where students can practice their acquired
knowledge and skills in real-world settings; and businesses can partner with HEIs to target critical
skills sought by employers and then assist in the creation of programs to help students acquire
and apply those skills.
References
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Bartram, D. (2005) The Great Eight competencies: A criterion-centric approach to validation.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1185–1203
Cheng, M. I., &. Dainty, R. I. J. (2005). Toward a multidimensional competency-based managerial
performance framework: A hybrid approach. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20, 380–396
Draganidis, F., & Mentzas, G. (2006). Competency-based management: A review of systems and
approaches. Information Management &Computer Security, 14, 51–64
Dubois, D., & Rothwell, W. (2004). Competency-Based Human Resource Management. Davies–
Black Publishing
Dubois, D., & Rothwell, W. (2000). The Competency Toolkit (Volumes 1 & 2). HRD Press
Homer, M. (2001). Skills and competency management. Industrial and Commercial training, 33/2,
59–62
Lucia, A., & Lepsinger, R. (1999). The Art and Science of Competency Models: Pinpointing Critical
Success Factors in Organizations. Pfeiffer
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Kochanski, J. T.,& Ruse, D. H. (1996). Designing a competency-based human resources
organization. Human Resource Management, 35, 19–34
Patrick, S., Sturgis, C,. (2011) Cracking the Code: Synchronizing Policy and Practice for
Performance-Based Learning; Vienna, Virginia. International Association for K-12 Online Learning.
Rose Colby, author of Off the Clock – Moving Education from Time to Competency.
Spencer, L M. in Cherniss, C. and D. Goleman, eds. (2001) “The economic value of emotional
intelligence competencies and EIC-based HR programs”, in The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace:
How to Select for, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups and
Organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass/Wiley
The United Republic of Tanzania, Higher Education Development Programme, 2010-2015,
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training
The United Republic of Tanzania, National Higher Education Policy 1999, Ministry of Science,
Technology and Higher Education (1996)
The United Republic of Tanzania, The Technical Education and Training Policy in Tanzania,
Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (1996)
The United Republic of Tanzania, The Universities Act 2005
Ulrich, D. and Brockbank, W. (2005) The HR Value Proposition. Boston: Harvard Business School
Press
Wood. R., & Payne, T. (1998). Competency-Based Recruitment and Selection. Wiley
List of Key Informants Responding
Government
1. Prof. Sylvia Shayo Temu, Director of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training.
2. Dr. Jonathan S. Mbwambo, Assistant Director, Department of Higher Education Ministry of
Education and Vocational training.
3. Malehe Setta, Tanzania Commission for Universities
4. Alexander L. Kamwela Assistant to the Executive Secretary, Tanzania Commission for Universities.
Private Sector
1. Joyce Nangai, Head Communications & Marketing, Association of Tanzania Employers (ATE).
2. Oscar Mkunde, Economist, Association of Tanzania employers (ATE).
3. Akida M. Munyenyelwa, Policy Specialist - Advocacy, Confederation of Tanzania Industries (CTI).
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4. Thomas M, M\Kimbunga, Director of Documentation and Information Services, Confederation of
Tanzania Industries (CTI).
5. Salahi S.Salahi, Executive Director, Zanzibar Employers Association (ZANEMA).
6. Mzee R. A. Kange, Principal Geologist State Mining Corporation (STAMICO).
Academia
1. Prof. John Kondoro, Principal Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology (DIT)
2. Prof. Christian W.M. Nyahumwa, Deputy Principal Academic Research and Consultancy, Dar es
Salaam Institute of Technology (DIT)
3. Faustine K. Bee Associate Professor, Principal Moshi University College of Cooperative and
Business Studies (MUCCOBS)
4. Rev. Prof. Harrison Olan'g Vice Chancellor, Mount Meru University
5. Dr. Geoffrey Mucoki, Deputy Vice Chancellor Academic Affairs, Mount Meru University
6. Prof, Ephata E. Kaaya, Vice Chancellor, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences
(MUHAS)
7. Dr. Ester Innocent, director Institute of Traditional Medicine, MUHAS
8. Prof. Burton L. M. Mwamila Vice Chancellor, The Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and
Technology (AIST)
9. Prof. Elifas Tozo Bisanda, Deputy Vice Chancellor The Open University of Tanzania (OUT)
10. Rev. Prof. Dr. Joseph W. Parsalaw, Vice Chancellor, Tumaini University Makumira (TUMA)
11. Prof. Yunus D. Mgaya, Deputy Vice Chancellor, University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM)
12. Dr. Wineaster Anderson, Dean Business School (UDBS), University of Dar es Salaam
13. Prof. Idris A. Rai Vice Chancellor, The State University of Zanzibar
14. Dr. Hassan Rashid Ali, Dean School of Continuing and Professional Education, The State University
of Zanzibar
15. Prof. Mustafa A.A. Roshash, Vice Chancellor, Zanzibar University
16. Rev. Dr. Philbert Vumilia, Principal, Mwenge University
17. Dr. John Raymond Bakari, Deputy Principal Academic Affairs, Mwenge University
18. Rev. Dr, Eugene Lyamtane, Deputy Principal Planning and Finance, Mwenge University
19. Rev Dr. Nelson. MwanKemwa Corporate Counselor, Mwenge University
20. Prof. Paul Ogula, Head Education, Menge University
21. Rev. Dr. Wilhelm Malasi, Director Quality Assurance, Mwenge University
22. Rev. Dr. Philip Kireti, Dean Faculty of Arts and Social sciences, Mwenge University
23. Mr. Annord Mwapinga, Examinations Officer, Mwenge University
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UGANDA
Mohammed Kerre, Salim wa-Mwawaza & Pius Achanga
Detailed administrative map of Uganda with cities and highways.
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I.
2014
Introduction
Uganda has observed in its Education Sector Strategic Plan 2004-2015 (2004) that the critical problem
facing its economy is inadequate men and women with the competencies needed to achieve its
development goals. Yet the anticipated rate of economic growth (GDP) is not enough to expand the
education system over the next ten years to meet the demands of a rapidly growing school-age
population. However, the last three decades have witnessed enormous transformation in education
bringing with it important challenges that inform the authorities and education scholars that
education and training management is a dynamic sector that must continually respond to the
dynamism of the environment.
In addition, Uganda also experienced extraordinary expansion and qualitative growth in higher
education from one university in 1988 to 34 universities (5 public and 29 private) today. Higher
education in Uganda is composed of a wide range of types of institutions where studies and training at
higher level; the conduct of research, differ between particular types of institutions due to
institutional culture and orientation, and resource constraints. The education system is organized
around three levels and is often referred to as a “7 -6 -2 plus” system. A student spends seven years
in the primary, six in the secondary and two (or more depending on the programme) in the higher
education sub-sector. The higher education sub-sector is composed of universities and non-university
institutions officially referred to as "Other Tertiary Institutions". The sub-sector is neither integrated
nor diversified, lacking a credit system to ease student mobility amongst disciplines and institutions.
In the context of current developments in higher education, the National Council for Higher Education
(NCHE) is committed to strengthening the policy and regulatory environment to ensure that the
higher education institutions (HEI) in Uganda create, sustain and provide relevant and quality higher
education for all qualified Ugandans, and to meet the local, national and global education challenges.
The NCHE relies on higher education and the academic and research community as major partners in
the transformation and development of higher education in Uganda. Moreover, it regards higher
education as an intrinsic component of its overall programme in its main fields of competence education, science and technology, social and human sciences, culture and communication, and in the
realization and sustenance national integration and development. Finally, NCHE is also encouraging
more universities to actively engage with employers to kite-mark certain courses, in order to recognise
their value. For example, the computer access has worked in collaboration with a number of higher
education institutions to accredit courses which provide the knowledge and skills required to pursue a
career in the industry. Those who graduate from the ten accredited courses are almost three times
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more likely to have gained employment six months after graduation than those from non-accredited
courses.
Further evidence suggests that employers are looking for a range of skills, which are developed
through academic study, work experience and extra-curricular activity. In other words, graduate
prospects rely on the overall student experience, not on academic credentials alone. Employers are
looking for candidates who demonstrate communication, team work and organisational skills. Across
the higher education sector, there is a growing consensus that universities have to do more to prepare
students for the workforce and not just support them to achieve a good degree. Some universities are
already taking action to embed this type of holistic focus on the development of skills and capabilities.
It is under such broad terms that higher education in Uganda is being called upon to be better
adjusted and made more responsive to the demands of times in which new opportunities are
accompanied by new challenges. Thus, higher education is being asked to develop, with all relevant
partners, a comprehensive national philosophy and vision of its goals, tasks and functioning.
II.
The Uganda Education System
Introduction
The Uganda education system is embedded in the Long Term Education Sector Strategic Plan 2015,
and is designed to promote national integration and development. The Plan has six specific goals (i)
national unity and patriotism, (ii) social values, (iii) Service, (iv) scientific and technical knowledge and
skills development,(v) eradication of illiteracy, and (vi) contribution to building sustained national
economy). Today the Uganda government is focused on translating these national education goals and
priorities into practical and feasible aims of education directed at meeting needs of individual,
community and the country at large. In addition, the government is seeking mechanisms to sustain
the education system, promote quality and ensure that qualifications awarded through this system
are internationally recognized. This concern is central to the economic metrics of Uganda. At present
education is an important foreign-exchange earner to the Uganda’s exchequer,48 and since 2006 it has
experienced rapid expansion in terms of students enrolment and new institutions, increasing access
and mobility of students.
The content and delivery of higher education is being transformed by a number of global and
domestic forces, which leaders must respond to if they are to properly administer the learning
48
Uganda at present is a perfect example of a country trading in education services within the context of the World Trade Organisations definition.
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processes. The forces of globalization, increasing use of the new technologies in higher education and
its delivery (ICTs, biotechnology, nanotechnology, etc), massification of access to higher education and
the entrance of market forces in higher education delivery can be viewed as some of the factors
impacting on the Uganda’s educational landscape.
National Education Philosophy
Does Uganda have an education philosophy? Each new document on education development and
management in Uganda has its own theme. We want to believe that these themes are imbedded in a
national education philosophy. However, since 1987, the focus has been on national reconciliation
and development - but this is not widely shared, and does not seem to permeate programmes
through the education system.
Higher Education In Uganda
In Uganda higher education starts after successful completion of a full secondary education of six
years. HEI admit students who have successfully passed the advanced level secondary school
examination leading to the award of the Uganda Advanced Level Certificate of Education (UALCE)
commonly known as A-Level in Uganda and across the EAC region.
In the East African Community context higher education has never been more important to all nations
than it is right now. By contributing to governance, culture, democracy and the spirit of enterprise,
higher education creates valuable public goods. The value of these public goods keeps increasing.
Meanwhile, globalisation and the emergence of regional economic blocks is encouraging both
competition and co-operation across borders. The knowledge economy concept values knowledge
over more traditional physical assets.
In Uganda universities are the highest institutions of higher education authorised to award degrees,
diplomas and certificates. They also conduct research and publish, creating and disseminating new
knowledge. In 2006 Uganda amended its Universities and Other Tertiary Institutions Act introducing,
in the process, a new category of higher education institutions called Other Degree Awarding
institutions (ODAI) - with the powers to confer degrees, diplomas and certificates. However, the most
dominant section of the HEI in Uganda is what is referred to as Other Tertiary Institutions (OTI)
responsible for developing middle-skills and awarding diplomas and certificates. As at the end of 2013
Uganda had 187 higher education institutions of which were 34 universities, 2 ODAIs and 151 OTIs.
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Uganda understands that it needs higher education - and they need it increasingly. But it faces
significant obstacles as it tries to improve both the quantity and the quality of the education it
provides.
49

As structured as the system seems to be, at each of these levels, more than 70% of the
enrolment is in arts and humanities at university level, and at the other institutions 94%.
Discussions with stakeholders has revealed that more needs to be done by the government,
especially the NCHE to develop capacity to monitor compliance with the policies and laws
regulating operations of HEI, particularly in line with national development strategies and
priorities, and in directing the country towards growth. Whereas it is common knowledge that
universities have three core tasks teaching, research and community service - the outcome of
this human capital designed to transform the nation.

The growth in higher education institutions has highly contributed to mismatch in skills by
redirecting its efforts to information science, and science and technology programmes instead
of basic sciences, and by enrolling more students into arts subjects. The NCHE, observes that
enrolment in these programmes are largely in computer related areas rather than in basic
sciences - mathematical or other technical sciences.49 In this respect (i) there is need to
develop scientific research and training, which is weak in the country in order to create
scientific capacity to develop new technologies and to adapt existing technologies to the
country's own problems. Currently, however, the "knowledge gap" is growing wider, with a
weak base of scientific papers published and negligible (in fact zero) patents granted to higher
education institutions in Uganda; (ii) general education, which provides individuals with vital
skills in critical thinking, creativity, and communication, may not be relevant for all students,
but it is certainly important that some students receive this kind of broad training. General
education offers a good preparation for knowledge-based careers, encourages attitudes that
facilitate lifelong learning, and promotes citizenry and leadership (the key concern of Uganda
today) if well programmed and delivered.

Demand for tertiary education, however, has continued to rise. In part, there is a simple
demographic effect at work. The more children are educated to secondary level, so will more
want to continue their studies. However, the increase in demand is made more dramatic by
the fact that a growing proportion of those leaving secondary schools want to undertake
further studies. All over the world, students, and their families, understand that the value of
advanced education is continuing to rise. Rising demand has been met by overworked and
NCHE, The State of Higher Education and Training in Uganda: A Report on Higher Education Delivery and Institutions, 2011
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underfunded institutions, but also by a growing private sector. The private sector has a
valuable contribution to make, but it has its limits. It tends to be strong on subjects with a
rapid and high economic rate of return to students, but it is less successful at delivering
education and research as public goods. Therefore, those responsible for the public interest
should not sit back and let markets rule.

The problem of attracting highly-qualified faculty is, if anything, becoming more pressing. A
global market for the best academic talent is developing, increasing the cost of employing
faculty. Brain drain, whereby a country's most talented individuals are offered opportunities to
continue their studies and careers abroad, poses a continuing threat to teaching quality and a
challenge to those attempting to make the political case for the difference higher education
can make to Uganda. This is even made worse by the fact that Uganda universities are faced
with inadequate budgets constraining development and even forcing delayed promotions, lack
of staff development funds, and meagre pay for academic staff, and that most universities lack
sufficient qualified academic staff as a result faculties, schools, institutes and departments are
headed by Master's holders making research and postgraduate training difficult. In addition
most lecturers lack pedagogical skills.
This challenges the Uganda Ministry responsible for higher education and the NCHE to seeks means
and ways to integrate private institutions into a national higher education system, where the sum of
the contribution of different institutions is considerably more than the parts. A systems perspective
places the NCHE in the role of supervisor, rather than manager, of higher education. In this role, it can
set boundaries, regulate quality and ensure access for disadvantaged groups. Perhaps most
importantly, it can sponsor debate about what kind of higher education is needed to meet national
needs.
However, methods of evaluating the benefits of higher education have traditionally been quite
narrow, neglecting higher education's role in generating human capital as public goods. The rate of
return to the individual has generally been measured in terms of higher salaries, with only the
increased taxes these salaries incur counted as a public benefit. By this measure, investment in higher
education delivers significantly smaller public and private returns than investment in primary and
secondary education. Both the government, politicians and donors have therefore tended to
downplay the importance of advanced education and, in some cases, have advised governments to
withdraw funding from the sector, and introduce loan schemes which are often poorly designed and
skewed towards the more affluent.
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Higher Education Academic Infrastructure
The growth that Uganda has experienced has been in line with the academic infrastructure put in
place by the government and stakeholders to facilitate evolution and development of higher
education. For purposes of this study we have defined academic infrastructure to mean those
essential parts of the university that serve to establish the framework for university operations,
helping to set effective procedures and governance practices, and in delivering programmes designed
to develop essential skills and competences. Therefore, on one part with have the policies, legal
instruments, strategies and governance institutions and pillars, and on the other hand we have the
academic staff.
The higher education academic infrastructure exists to ensure that the university's processes align
with its strategic direction, core principles, regulatory and governance responsibilities, and need for
change. It helps the university to describe its position on a particular issue and assist to maintain
consistency, institution-wide standards of behaviour for both staff and students, and respond to
societal needs50.
Uganda's current infrastructure, within this definition includes policies, legal and regulatory
instruments, institutions, strategies and practices developed at government and institutional
(university) levels, and they include, among others the Uganda Constitution, the Science Education
Policy, Agriculture Education Policy, Business Technical and Vocational Education & Training (BTVET)
policy, Prioritisation of science education at all primary education and training levels, ICT in education
policy as an efficiency measure for enhancing the quality of education, Gender in Education policy to
guide the mainstreaming of gender issues in the sector, Environment in Education policy that is
derived from the National Environment Act with focus on integration of environmental issues and
concerns into education, special needs education policies, Physical education and Sports policy,
Universities and Tertiary Institutions Act 2001, and the Uganda Vocational Qualifications Framework.
For universities to provide quality education, the role of a conducive learning environment and skilled
academic staff is also essential. Most lecturers in universities around Uganda lack pedagogical,
andragogical and assessment skills that are critical to the learning process. Therefore, part of the staff
enhancement programmes should be providing a mandatory postgraduate certificate/diploma in
education to all teaching staff at universities.
50
It is the responsibility of each higher education institution to attain high quality academic infrastructure that reflects its needs , drives its vision and
compares with existing benchmark policies. We should caution though that the development of a higher education academic infrastructure can be a
length process requiring extensive resource, planning, research and consultations.
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It is upon the NCHE, as the quality assurance body, and institution of change and reform to engineer a
reform agenda that starts with assessing a country's needs and then developing a typology of
institutions to fit those needs. A systems perspective allows for the effective differentiation of
institutions, with each type of institution, from technical college to university, having a clearly defined
purpose and strategic objectives. The system is a much more relevant concept to Uganda than the
higher education pyramid used today. Quality is important throughout the system - and different
types of institutions can make an equally valuable contribution to their students and society as a
whole.
Admission, Assessment, Examination and Awards system
Uganda's entry requirement to higher education is defined by scoring highly at A-Level. This
presupposes that all A-level schools are the same and have students from similar backgrounds and
enjoying similar benefits. Most representatives of universities argue that excellence at high school is
what makes university material and assures the university of quality. Protecting quality, however,
cannot be accomplished at the expense of efforts to increase access. Uganda is attempting to expand
higher education to meet growing demand. We noted that it is keen to target groups that have
traditionally been excluded from higher education. In the past, discussed revealed that subsidies for
higher
education
have
traditionally
benefited
the
wealthy
a
major
fac
tor behind higher education's current elitist image. It was widely agreed that the goal of "equity and
opportunity" should be at the heart of higher education in Uganda, with standardised selection
mechanisms ensuring that non-academic criteria are eliminated from the admissions process. A
variety of strategies were discussed that create opportunities for disadvantaged groups. Institutions
offering less that 3-year courses, for example, can provide an important entry point into higher
education. Allowing students to take time out between academic years and permitting them to move
between universities to create valuable flexibility. Perhaps, most important are innovative financing
mechanisms, which offer preferential treatment for the socially and economically disadvantaged.
The labour market representatives, however, pointed out that access for disadvantaged groups was
not sufficient. In many cases, ongoing support is needed to help students cope with the demands
placed on them once they have entered a higher education institution. Such support may, depending
on the student involved, be academic, financial or psychological. On this note it was pointed out that
student services departments are lacking or differ between universities, and are weak on providing
the support that drives up retention or improves quality. Student service departments should have
direct managerial responsibility for areas such as counselling, dyslexia support, financial advice,
general advice, hardship funding, student union liaison, study skills, careers and health promotion. In
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most universities, this desks are unmanned or absent. There is need for professionalism in student
services in order to helped identify clear patterns in the risk points in the student life-cycle where
people are most likely to drop out. The majority of those who drop out do so during the first few
weeks after arrival at university, or during the first formal assessment. By gathering clear data on
these particular moments of risk, and sharing expertise on which forms of support are most effective,
universities can target resources to minimize the risk of people dropping out. In addition, institutions
should be equipped to recognise the benefit of enhanced student support at key transition points
throughout the whole student journey, and its impact on retention.
Presently universities are focused on induction and orientation for newly starting students. They
should move into innovative support services, such as helping students to manage the transition into
the second year and supporting students before going on internships and work placements. In order
to better target resources at particular groups, universities should use market research techniques,
such as customer segmentation, to enable them to provide teaching and support services which
appropriately reflect students’ different cultural, social and economic backgrounds.
Uganda's examination and qualification award system is governed by six institutions:
1. Uganda National Examinations Board for end-of-cycle examinations at primary, secondary and
TVET institutions awarding ordinary diplomas and certificates
2. Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT) conducts assessments for BTVET subsector awarding Trade
Tests and UVQF qualifications
3. Uganda Nurses and Midwives Examination Board for persons in the nursing system
4. Allied Health Examination Board
5. The Business and Technical Examination Board
6. At university level each institution examines and awards its own qualifications.
University level examination and award system varies because of two major issues:
a) each HEI varies according to the quality of their leadership, as well as in response to external
factors. Whereas in other sectors, decision-making power resides at the top of the institution,
much of the power in higher education lies among students and faculty. Reforms can seldom be
imposed, as those who are affected usually have plentiful scope to refuse. In addition higher
education, is an intensely political arena, and the impact of the wider country-level governance
environment cannot be overestimated. Institutions have a role as social critics and ask questions
that cannot be asked elsewhere. Student politics can have a major impact on how institutions are
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run. Governance structures are seldom free from political influence, with appointments often
politically controlled. This often impacts on the quality of service delivery.
b) the quality of higher education delivery. With ever-expanding student numbers, quality becomes
increasingly difficult to monitor and control. The uncontrolled growth of the private sector
exacerbates the problem, as a proportion of new institutions sacrifice quality in the pursuit of
profit.
To contain this situation, there is a call for more stakeholders, especially from the private sector and
civil society to be involved in the national accreditation committees or commissions for higher
education to review academic and administrative performance. It was also mentioned that the
examination and award system should be benchmarked on a regional standards system, and welcome
the participation of external examiners from reputable universities in the region and beyond.
Another important issue related to admission,
Moreover, it was found that most
assessment, examination and award, discussed
institutions had outdated curricula,
extensively, as a quality assurance component is
based on memorization and not on
curricula review and development. Curricular reform is
problem solving: all of which were
also closely linked to quality improvements. It was
oriented
towards
civil
service
observed, mostly by the labour market actors that
employment (which, in fact, was
curricula in many areas are outdated and responsive
contracting). Institutions continued to
neither to domestic needs nor to the demands of the
expand enrollment despite lack of
global economy. Whereas private institutions tend to
adequate facilities. This called into
concentrate their resources on subjects such as business
place the need for regulation to assure
and information technology, the public sector curricula
quality. But regulation alone could not
work unless the people who manage
do not keep up with changing social contexts and
the sub-sector were aware of the
changing
teaching
methods.
Whatever
the
forces and able to manage the trends
circumstances local context must be taken into
that impacted on the services they
consideration on many other curricular issues.
deliver to students.
Successful curricular development invariably requires
the development of a reform community within, or
Pius Achanga, Uganda NCHE Jan. 2014
across, institutions. Faculty support is vital for most
higher education initiatives, but it is of paramount
importance that faculty members have belief in the
curriculum they teach. Skilled consensus-building work is therefore needed. Faculty members need to
understand the options before them and the approaches taken by other institutions and national
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systems. Most importantly, they need to understand what reforms will deliver to students, and to be
convinced that the costs of change will be outweighed by eventual benefits.
III.
The Emerging Situation
Demand for quality, comparable and relevant education in East Africa is rising as authorities press for
greater higher education efficiency and effectiveness at home and as universities expand their
operations across the borders, and emerging local institutions see themselves as uniquely suited to
offer relevant university education to local citizens geared to meet labour market demands . But the
growing universities with cross-border operations are also getting to speed on idiosyncratic student
requirements and local regulations.
The pace of technology change accelerates each year, creating even more demand for highly educated
people. Research shows51 that 30 percent of all new jobs in the East African Community region in the
next 10 years will require a college degree - distancing the earnings potential of college graduates
from those without a college education. Will businesses wait for these gaps to be filled? Not likely—
they tell us that they need stronger technical capabilities, and are investing heavily in deep
specialization programs, technical training, apprenticeships52, and eagerly seeking partnerships with
universities.
Over the last twenty years, a new paradigm of the function of higher education in society has
emerged. While universities still maintain their role as the "conscience of society", more pragmatic
roles have been evolving over time: universities no longer pursue knowledge for its own sake, rather
they provide qualified manpower and produce knowledge. With this new economically oriented
paradigm, comes accountability. Higher education will be judged in terms of outputs and the
contributions it makes to national development.
Criteria to assess the quality of the work and of the teams which carry out research in this new
university will differ from those of more traditional, disciplinary science. In the past, quality was
determined through peer review. Control was maintained by careful selection of those judged
competent to act as peers, which was in the part determined by their previous contributions to their
discipline. In the new university additional criteria are added through the context of application which
51
Source: The World at Work: Jobs, Pay, and Skills for 3.5 billion People, McKinsey & Company /Richard Dobbs, Anu Madgavkar, Dominic Barton, Eric
Labaye, James Manyika, Charles Roxburgh, Susan Lund and Siddaarth Madhav, June 2012, http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/employment and
growth/the worl at work.
52 Recasting high school, German firms transplant apprentice model to U.S., Washingtonpost.com/business/economy/recasting-high-school-german-firmstransplant-apprentice-model-to-us/2013/11/27/6b242be8-4e42-11e3-ac54-aa84301_story.html.
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now incorporates a diverse range of intellectual interests as well as other social, economic or political
ones.
Quality assurance will be more complex as universities move to broaden the range of their knowledge
missions. Until now, quality control in teaching and research has been exercised through essentially
the same type of peer review system. Quality has been a matter for academics and academics alone. It
has been up to them to determine when quality in both teaching and research has been achieved.
Hybridization of the disciplinary structure is likely to continue to be the main mode of expansion in
teaching provision in the future. If new research practices diffuse more widely throughout universities,
entirely new assurance mechanisms will be necessary for the problem-oriented teaching that will
accompany it. One can expect to see the development of new bench marking methodologies and the
production of a range of bench marking studies across the higher education sector.
In the quality assurance processes which are now emerging, a much wider range of factors is being
considered. Universities will not be able to insist on criteria which reflect their intellectual interests
alone rather they will be one actor among several and the challenge for them will be to ensure that
their legitimate interests survive the negotiation process.
These are the realities that Uganda has to wrestle with as it embraces the fact that the dynamics of
society have changed from strong boundaries between separate countries, and institutional spheres
and organizations to a more flexible overlapping system, with each actor taking the role of the other.
This dynamism redefines the role of each key stakeholder in the Uganda higher education system specifically the academia, the industry and the public sector. In this new dimension:
(a) The Academia emerges as a creator of firms/enterprises through innovation incubator facilities,
and centres of excellence for innovation and entrepreneurship development, and not just a
provider of education, training, research and technology;
(b) Industry is the educator and trainer, whose entry into the education and training sphere would be
based on structured internships and fellowships, academia/industry personnel exchange
programmes, and the creation of professorial chairs, and not just supplier of goods and services;
and
(c) The State is the venture capitalist through which innovative financing programs, and creation of
supportive environment for the sustainable growth of collaborative research and development
among firms, universities and national laboratories to address issues of national competitiveness
and not just the guardian of political will is accessed.
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One of the biggest challenges facing companies is a shortage of up- to-date, technical and professional
skills. Electric cars, new sources of energy, software-driven products and services, changes in the
regulatory landscape, the explosion of mobile computing applications, Big Data and the Internet of
things53, and a shift toward service-based offerings all require new skills. Companies (like Motorola
Solutions, Adobe, IBM, and Xerox) have made large investments for training their teams to evolve
from product sellers to solution and industry experts. Other companies (like Ericsson, EMC, Lockheed
Martin, and Cisco) have transformed their engineering teams to focus on new products in consumer
electronics, Big Data, telecommunications, and cyber-security. In addition, Uganda is looking at
railway engineering, petroleum engineering and a host of middle level skills.
How do we address these challenges? Our discussions with stakeholders shows that most companies
cannot possibly address these issues by focusing solely on short- term training—the problem is one of
building a “supply chain of skills.” Technical, managerial, and professional skills gaps take years to fill.
An oil company recently told us that it takes five to seven years for a senior geophysicist to enter its
organization and become fully productive. This is not only because they need to develop skills in
geosciences, they also need to absorb and learn years of institutional proprietary knowledge (e.g.,
processes, procedures, methods, systems) unique to this company. What this means is that, in order
for learning and development to add long-term value, the team has to look at capability gaps today
and into the future—and build a pipeline of “known gaps in the future” to build a skills supply chain
now.
It is in this respect that development of human resource in Uganda and the creation of knowledge is
the responsibility of the tripartite relationship of the state, academia and the labour market. This
relationship need to be defined through a formal policy framework and institutional arrangement,
which will ensure sustainable human resource development and knowledge creation and transfer for
growth and development over the next many years. It is this arrangement that will transform the
education system, and put Uganda among the leading nations of the knowledge-society.
IV.
Lessons and Suggestions for Implementation
The higher education institutions have the canon duty to develop the national human capital. With
this calling the HEIs have to understand two things - public talent system and corporate talent system,
this is when HEIs will begin to realize that they must rethink the way in which human resource work
and structure programmes and delivery methods based on the labour market.
53
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_Things
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Middle- and high-skills jobs comprise the largest gaps. Middle skills describe highly specialized
mechanical, technical, and production careers that may require industry or government certification
but not necessarily a bachelor’s degree. Growing middle-skills industries such as manufacturing,
construction, and healthcare are facing the most significant skills shortages. Employers in high-skills
STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) fields - which require at least an undergraduate
degree - also will be hard-pressed to find adequate talent in coming years.
Information technology is another evolving high-skills field that needs qualified workers to keep pace
with its ongoing change. According to Uganda Private Sector Foundation, more than 50% of
businesses rate the aggregate skill levels of their IT staff as less than optimal, and 93 percent of
employers indicate that there is an overall skills gap among employees. The private sector also cites
the top industry skills gap concerns: networks/ infrastructure, server/data center management,
storage/data
back-up,
cybersecurity,
database/information
management,
and
web
design/development. The dynamic nature of the IT space is a primary cause of talent shortages, as
well as a lack of resources for professional development.
These causes translate to middle-skills industries as well. Retiring workers, the impact of the
recession, and an insufficient pipeline of new workers are the main factors contributing to a mass
construction skills shortage. At the rate at which build environment is growing it is only fair to
estimate that that non-residential construction projects will grow 73 percent by 2025. Such growth
has serious implications for the availability of skilled construction workers, especially in the areas of
trade and engineering.
In addition to industry skills gaps, employers are observing a lack of critical soft skills—such as
communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking—in today’s workforce. These soft skills
are important to support business expansion and grow the emerging private sector in Uganda. In
addition leadership and executive skills, managerial and supervisory skills, and profession-or industryspecific skills are ranked as the highest areas for skills gaps. It is important to note that managerial and
supervisory skills are of most concern to the labour market.
Discussions with the labour market actors revealed that the top reason for the skills gaps is that the
skills of the workforce don’t match company strategy, goals, markets, or business models. This was
followed closely by a lack of bench strength in the company’s leadership ranks. Also coming in high on
the list of reasons for the skills gap is less of an investment in training, or a lack of support for
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employee learning and development in the company to enhance job-entry level skills the employees
come with from college.
The impact of the skills gap is far reaching and varied, with effects on global economics, human capital
development, and business performance. In advanced economies, skill imbalances would lead to more
long-term and permanent joblessness and a greater polarization of incomes between high- and lowskilled workers. But for Uganda it has been responsible for the slow climb into higher value-added
industries and the reason why the low-skilled workers are trapped in subsistence agriculture or urban
poverty (informal sector).
The intervention is three dimensional involving the state, academia and the labour market. The
solution is in a workforce survey. The state and the labour market leaders should look to their learning
professionals to help identify the skills and competencies needed now and in the future and to align
their development to key drivers for the market. The following flow-chart identifies six steps for
taking charge of skills gaps.
Understand the Country's
Key Strategies, Goals, and
Performance Metrics
Identify Competencies and
Skills That Map To Strategies
and Performance Metrics
Monitor
and
Measure
Results and Communicate
The Impact
Design and run Programmes
Assess The Skills Gap
Set Goals and Prioritize The
Path to Filling Gaps
References





Directorate of Industrial Training, Generic Descriptors of Competence Levels, Uganda Vocational
Qualifications Framework (UVQF) Summary of Generic Levels
National Council for Higher Education, The State of Higher Education and Training in Uganda: A
Report on Higher Education Delivery and Institutions, 2010
National Council for Higher Education, The State of Higher Education and Training in Uganda: A
Report on Higher Education Delivery and Institutions, 2011
National Council for Higher Education, Annual Performance Report and Financial Statements for
the Financial Year 2011/12
Prof. Venansius Baryamureeba, We Need to Overhaul Higher Education, Uganda 2014, Education
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List of Those Interviewed In Uganda
(I)
(II)
(III)
Government and Public Institutions
- Professor Opudo –Asibo, John Executive Director National Council for Higher Education
Email opasyn@gmail.com
- Dr Pius Achanga, National Council for Higher Education Email Pius Achanga
(pius_achanga@yahoo.com)
- Mrs Elizabeth Gabona, Director of Education Uganda
- Mr Sam Masolo, Deputy Director Directorate of Industrial Training Uganda Email
masolosam@yahoo.com
Public and Private Universities
- Prof Kazenga Tibenderana, Vice Chancellor Kampala International University Email
admin@kiu.ac.ug
- Professor John Ddumba – Ssentama Vice Chancellor Makerere University Email
jddumba@yahoo.com , vc@admin.mak.ac.ug
- Professor Fredrick I Kayanja Vice Chancellor Mbarara University of Science and
Technology Email vc@must.ac.ug ; jsenyonyi@ucu.ac.ug
- Dr Mohammed Mpesa Mhingo Vice Rector in Charge of Academic Affairs Mbale University
- Rev. Canon Dr John Senyonyi, Vice Chancellor Uganda Christian University email
jsenyonyi@ucu.ac.ug
Private Sector
- Mr Kigozi Sebagala, Executive Director Uganda Manufacturing Association Email
ed@uma.or.ug, fairourzk2000@gmail.com
- Mr Gideon Badagawa, Executive Director Private Sector Foundation Uganda Email
gbadagawa@psfuganda.org.uganda
- Mrs Rosemary Ssenabulya, Executive Director Federation of Uganda Employers Email
rosenamatovu@yahoo.co.uk
- Mr Lamech Wesonga, Assistant Manager Policy Uganda Manufacturers Association, E
mail lamech@uma.or.ug wesolamech@yahoo.co.uk
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