Where’s the Impact?
Proposing the Future of Instructional
Technology Research
Barbara Lockee
Virginia Tech
Why this topic?
 Great interest in the use of technology for learning
across all disciplines
 Much research has been done inside and outside of
the field of Ed Tech
 Overview of trends in Ed Tech’s evolution and research
 The next generation? Believing and Hoping…
Educational Technology Past
The streams or threads that comprise ET
100,000 years ago?
30,000 years ago?
MEDIA
Drawing in the dirt?
Cave drawings?
3,500 BCE
Written languages
2000 BCE
First Alphabet
1000 BCE
Writing on bone, tablets, etc.
100 CE
Paper invented
600 CE
First books printed (China)
1150 CE
Moveable steel type (Korea)
1500 CE
Lead pencils in England
1500 CE
Camera obscura
Educational Technology Past
The streams or threads that comprise ET
1600’s
MEDIA
Magic Lantern
1700’s
Multiple images – Magic Lantern
1877
Phonograph
1888
Kodak – Box camera
1888
First movie
1890
First “talkie”
1900
First radio broadcasts
1925
First television broadcast
Educational Technology Past
The streams or threads that comprise ET
3000 BCE
COMPUTING/
CALCULATING
Abacus
1600
Calculators (Pascaline)
1801
Punched cards (Jacquard)
1880’s
Punched cards (Hollerith)
1940’s
First electronic computers
1950’s
Mainframes (1st Gen - tubes)
1960’s
Mainframes (2nd Gen – transistors)
1965 -1971
1972 –present
1990’s
Mainframes (3rd Gen–Integrated Circuits)
Microcomputers
Internet
Educational Technology Past
The streams or threads that comprise ET
INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN
1940’s
Military training needs
1950’s
Skinner’s “Technology of Teaching”
Programmed Instruction
1960’s
Gagne’s “Conditions of Learning”
1970’s
Height of Programmed Instruction
Rise of Cognitive Psychology
1980’s
Rise of CBI (big systems)
1990’s
Rise of Constructivism
Educational Technology Past
 The “streams” or “threads” that comprise ET
Educational Technology Past
 Educational Technology is at the nexus of Psychology,
Media, and Computer Science
 With the exception of a brief flurry of design activity
around programmed instruction, the focus from the
educational community and society has been on
technology and its promise to solve educational
problems…
In Other Words…
Technology is The Answer!!!
…but what was the question?
Why should we care about history?
 "All this has happened before. All this will happen
again.”
Educational Technology Past
 Beginning in 1850 with the invention of the “Magic
Lantern” (flame produced light and transparent slides),
the educational value of media has been proclaimed.
Educational Technology Past
 With motion pictures, recorded sound, “talkies”, etc. it
appeared that books, and teachers(!) would become
obsolete
 “…books will soon be obsolete in schools. It is
possible to teach every branch of human knowledge
with the motion picture.”
(Thomas Edison, 1913)
Educational Technology Past
 Then radio would save
education, then television…
 “Radio broadcast is one of
the greatest educational
tools which has ever been
placed at the disposal of
civilized man.”
(G.T. Buswell, 1935 - The Phi Delta Kappan)
Educational Technology Past
“The results of the studies outlined
above give substantial evidence
that television does an adequate,
and perhaps superior, job of
teaching”
(Williams, The School Review,
1956)
Educational Technology Past
 Video discs
 Personal computers
 Tablet computers
 Mobile devices
 The next innovation…
Educational Technology
Present
 In U.S., IT spending in education reached $47.7
billion by the end of 2008 and is exceeded $56 billion
by 2012.
 According to “Education Snapshot: Learning with
Technology,” most education IT spending is occurring
in higher education–about 64% versus 36% in K-12.
(Nagel, THE Journal, 2008)
Educational Technology
Present
 Over 60% of the funding is in telecommunications,
wireless, security, etc. (hardware and personnel).
 The rest is what pays for computers and other
technology and software.
Educational Technology
Present
 Distance learning in K- 12
and Higher Education
 Virtual Worlds
 Games
 Tablets & iPads
 MOOCs
 Flipped classrooms
Educational Technology
Research
 Lots of money, time, and effort
 Does it work?
 What do we even mean when we ask “does it work?”
 Research vs. Evaluation
Research Began Early
 As audio-visual innovations emerged, each was
“researched” by comparing it to “traditional” instruction
 Known as media comparison studies
 Distance education produced some of the first
documented studies in ET
The Problem with
Comparisons
 Lack theoretical basis
 Confounding variables
 Most result in “no significant difference” outcomes
 Hundreds of studies over decades of research
 Every innovation becomes focus of comparison
 Even meta-analyses of NSD studies
However…
GI = GO
To make matters worse…
 NSD results are misinterpreted to mean “as good as”
 This causal leap was unjustified, only indicating the
treatment had no effect
 Analyses revealed confounding variables of media
features and instructional strategy
So What Are Good
Questions?
 Micro level issues
 Media attributes
 Instructional strategies
 Learner characteristics
 Macro level issues
 Analysis & design of systems
 Exploration of contextual factors
 Examination of socio-cultural issues
3M’s of Technology Mediated
Learning
 Delivery Mode
 Media attribute
 Instructional Method
Realism and Abstraction
 Amount of detail
 Line drawings--photographs--3-D
 Realism can cause interference
 Color vs. Black & White
 No difference in learning
 Preferred by learners
 Color can provide visual cues
Media Attributes
 Motion
 Sequence
 Interaction/Communication
 Feedback
Instructional Strategies
 Demonstration
 Problem-based learning
 Collaborative strategies
 Individualized instruction
Learner Characteristics
 Cognitive style
 Motivation
 Self-efficacy
 Cultural influences
Two Examples
Starting a skip loader grader
Personal protective equipment
Current Research Trends
 Movement from lab to applied settings
 From single method to mixed approaches
 Design-based research
 Iterative process of manipulating variables in the learning
environment until it “works”
 Nelson, W. (2013). Design, research, and design
research: Synergies and contradictions. Educational
Technology (53), 1, 3-11.
The Design Process
Analyze
Design
Develop
Implement
Evaluate
Synchronous Distributed Systems
Conferencing Systems
 Features
 Supports real-time communication for learning
 Various modalities
 Low development overhead
 What the Evidence Says
 Can be very effective in support of outcomes related to
procedural knowledge or social interaction skills
 Instructor and student preferences related to social presence
 Some negative feedback from learners regarding “being on the
spot”, hesitance to participate
Synchronous Distributed Systems
Multi-Player Games
 Features





Social interaction
Competition and collaboration
Rules and goals
Players take on roles, can be team-based or individual
Environments can vary from simplistic graphics to virtual reality
 What the Evidence Says
 Game accessibility and ease of use is critical to learning
 Not great for direct instruction, action is emergent and focused on
interactions and player choices
 More appropriate for open-ended learning, gaining insights, triggering
questions
 Debriefing upon completion can provide important feedback for both
instructor and students
Synchronous Distributed Systems
Augmented Reality Systems:
mediated view of real world
environment enhanced with digital information
 Features
 Information can be displayed through a variety of technologies including headmounted displays, handheld devices (including smartphones & iPads), and
spatial, projected displays
 Can support a variety of tasks including mechanical processes, navigation,
surgery, military exercises, language translation
 Can support individual instructional activities or collaborative endeavors
 Digital enhancements are possible through a variety of media, including text,
video, graphics, etc.
 What the Evidence Says
 Engagement and motivation of learners with prior challenges related to
behavior and participation
 Development of distributed knowledge and positive interdependence
 Some learners experience cognitive overload
 Can be remedied with effective design decisions
Google Glass
Asynchronous Distributed
Systems
Asynchronous E-Learning
 Features
 Flexibility in time and pace of coursework completion
 Depending on delivery system, can support wide range of media features (text,
audio, video, animations, etc.)
 High overhead in initial development, but payoff related to ease of modifications
and maintenance
 What the Evidence Says





Learners appreciate independence and convenience
Struggles with completion and attrition
Can be remedied with firm deadlines and regular communication from instructor
Some negative perspectives related to perceived decreased social presence
Can be addressed with provision of feedback and communication flow
Asynchronous Distributed
Systems
Adaptive Learning Systems: computer-based instruction,
content based on student input and performance
 Features
 Individualized instruction
 Customized to learner needs
 Mastery-learning
 Can support variety of delivery modes and media features
 What the Evidence Says
 Can enhance learner performance, as instruction is targeted to
specific needs
 Heavy front-end design needs can present barriers
 Evaluated through comparison conditions, demonstrate system
effectiveness
Asynchronous Distributed
Systems
Mobile Learning: the use of mobile technologies to deliver instruction
 Features






Supports a variety of content and instructional approaches
Often used to provide scaffolded support in field work or clinical instruction
Can capture and deliver learner information in many forms (text, photos, voice)
Device variance can be problematic
Internet access necessary
Can use a variety of media features, but small display and text input can pose
challenges
 What the Evidence Says



Content should be delivered in simplest possible form
Same issues of procrastination as e-Learning, can be addressed through pushed
email reminders, phone communication, quizzes and questions
Learner preferences indicate an appreciation for flexibility. When compared to
standard e-Learning, learners preferred non-mobile option.
The Next Generation?
 Believing…more of the same?
 US DOE 2010 National Ed Technology Plan
 “Identify and validate design principles for efficient and
effective online learning systems and combined online
and offline learning systems that produce content
expertise and competencies equal to or better than
those produced by the best conventional instruction in
half the time at half the cost.”
The Next Generation?
 Believing…more of the same?
 “Design and validate an integrated system that
provides real-time access to learning experiences
tuned to the levels of difficulty and assistance that
optimize learning for all learners and that incorporates
self-improving features that enable it to become
increasingly effective through interaction with learners.”
 Personalized Learning Environments
 Sound familiar??
The Next Generation?
 Hoping…
 Research related to technological innovations and
systems to engage learners
 Increase interest in and excitement about learning
 Virtual humans to engage learners in science
 Access information through innovation attributes
 Augmented reality to teach history
The Next Generation?
 Hoping…
 To echo Tom Reeves call for more “socially responsible
research”
 Technology-enhanced learning environments to
address real world problems
 Preserving language and culture
 Distance education to develop
human capacity
 Using game-based instruction to increase girls’
awareness of IT careers
The Next Generation?
 In closing, let’s be hopeful that…
 Instructional technology research will
 be informed by the past
 explore meaningful issues that address real world
problems
 Make a difference in the future!