PENGENALAN
KOMUNIKASI MASSA
KOB3201
Dr. Rosya Izyanie Hj. Shamshudeen
Jabatan Komunikasi
Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi
03-89468789
rosya@upm.edu.my
TOPIK KULIAH
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Pengenalan dan konsep komunikasi massa
Sejarah dan perkembangan media massa
Bentuk & struktur organisasi media
Media cetak
Media elektronik
Orientasi industri media
Fungsi, peranan dan kesan media
massa dalam masyarakat
Unit 8 Audien dan maklumbalas media massa
Unit 9 Teori media massa
Unit 10 Etika dan undang-undang media massa
Unit 11 Kerjaya dalam industri media
UNIT 4
PRINT MEDIA
NEWSPAPER:PRINT EDITION AND ONLINE EDITION
The difference between online edition
and print edition:






No page numbers
Its pages are not divided into columns
It has no top or bottom
The text is in a different font from the print
version
It does not contain the same ads as the print
version
THE STAR: PRINTED & ONLINE
EDITION
THE STAR: DIGITAL EDITION
NEWSPAPER:DIGITAL EDITION





Digital edition (DE) offers the same content as
print newspaper, but in a format that can be
read on a computer screen.
The format of DE is familiar to readers and
they are convenient.
However, DE are not updated.
DE require a lot of scrolling and zooming.
Digital newspaper ≠ online edition
DEFINING FEATURES OF NEWSPAPERS
1. Newspaper is made up of diverse
content – contain international,
national and local news. They also
feature editorials, letters to the
editor, movie listings, horoscopes,
comics, sports, film reviews, recipes,
advice columns, classified ads.
DEFINING FEATURES OF NEWSPAPERS
(CONT…)
2. Newspapers are conveniently packaged. It is
organized according to content. There are
sections devoted to general news, financial
news, sports, and entertainment. Each story
contains a headline.
3. Newspapers are local.
4. The newspaper serves as a historical record.
5. Newspapers perform the watchdog role in
our society.
6. Newspapers are timely. News is not useful if
it is stale.
Suratkhabar: Pengiklanan
Suratkhabar perlu menjana pendapatan.
Suratkhabar menghasilkan pendapatan
melalui 2 cara:




Pengiklanan
Edaran suratkhabar
4 jenis pengiklanan:




Pengiklanan runcit (retail advertising)
Classified ads
National ads
Freestanding Inserts (FSI)
Pengiklanan: Retail Advertising


Iklan terdiri daripada kedai komputer, hospital,
restoran, kedai menjual kereta, panggung
wayang, pasaraya dll.
Retail advertising merupakan pengiklan yang
paling penting. 50% iklan dlm suratkhabar harian
adalah terdiri dari jenis ini.
Suratkhabar: Pengiklanan
Pengiklanan: Classified advertising



Merupakan penyumbang kedua terbesar bagi
sumber pendapatan akhbar, iaitu hampir
40%.
Classified ads – merupakan iklan pendek utk
sesuatu produk atau perkhidmatan yang
dikelompokkan mengikut kategori masingmasing.
Ruang classified ads dijual kepada sesiapa
yang ingin menjual barangan mereka.
Classified ads
Pengiklanan: Pengiklanan Nasional

Pengiklanan nasional adalah
merupakan iklan yang terdiri daripada
syarikat besar: syarikat nasional dan
multinasional.
Pengiklanan: Freestanding Inserts (FSI)




Merupakan kepilan cetakan yang mengiklan
produk, atau perkhidmatan yang khusus.
FSI tidak dicetak sebagai sebahagian drp
suratkhabar, tetapi dimasukkan di dalam
suratkhabar selepas suratkhabar siap dicetak.
FSI banyak didapati di dalam suratkhabar
pada hari Ahad.
FSI dan pengiklanan nasional hanya
menyumbang 17% pendapatan suratkhabar,
tetapi ianya tetap diambil kira sebagai
penjana pendapatan akhbar yang penting.
Books




Types of books
Book publishing industry
Book promotion
Defining features of books
Types of books






Trade books
Professional books
University Press books
Text books
Reference book
Specialty book
Types of Books
i.
Trade books
 Sold to the general public through book stores and to
libraries.
 They can be hardbound, softbound, trade paperback.
 Many types of books come in this format, but romance
novels and science fiction tales are among the most
common.
 They include titles for children and adults.
 Most books sold today are trade books.
 Eg. Hardcover fiction, nonfiction, cookbooks, art books,
travel books, novels and several other types.
19
Trade books
Types of Books
ii. Professional books

Directed to professional people.

Contain specialized information needed by people in specific
occupations such as law and engineering.

Professional books fall into 3 subcategories:
 Technical and science books
 Medical books
 Business and other professional books
iii. Textbooks

Published for elementary, secondary students and college students.

These books are chosen by the lecturers.

Sold mainly through college bookstores.
Types of Books
iv. University Press books

Published every year by university presses.

Produce mainly scholarly materials in hardcover and softcover.

Sold in college bookstores.
v. Mass-market paperbacks

These books are defined not by their subjects but by where they are
sold.

Although you can find them in bookstores, mass market books are
mainly distributed through “mass” channels - supermarkets,
newsstands, or airports.

These books are made from cheaper paper.

Cost less than trade paperbacks.
Types of Books
vi. Reference books
• Such as atlases, dictionaries and encyclopedias allow
people to look up facts and information.
• Many now appear on the Internet or CD-ROMs.
• Initially expensive to produce, they are profitable because
much of the content can be recycled into new editions.
vii. Specialty books
 Include any type of book that does not fit into one of the
other categories, such as religious books, anthologies of
comics and college yearbooks
23
Book Publishing houses

The organisations that supervise the overall production of
books, including the development of new books, editing,
printing, and marketing

Minority publishers are often small, independent
publishers that target specific minority audiences.

University presses are affiliated with and subsidized by
universities and produce mostly academic books, often
original research by faculty.

Small presses have few employees and minimal facilities,
and usually produce books that the big publishers are not
interested – such as poetry. they can specialize in
specific topics, such as the environment or bicycling.
24
Book Promotion

Publishers promote their books in a variety of ways to maximize sales.
 Bookstore displays
 Jacket blurbs are favorable comments on the covers of books.
 Book review: advance copies of books go to newspapers and
magazines for review.
 Excerpts: putting a fragment of that book are placed in magazines
or newspaper and on Web sites. Eg. Offer sample chapters as free
downloads.
 Book fairs: where publishers traditionally show their books
 Radio and TV interviews: Make appearances on TV, radio, and in
bookstores.
25
Book Promotion
The Bookseller

Independents bookseller are privately owned stores,
usually operated by their owners. They may be big or small, they may
specialize in a narrow niche or carry a little bit of everything. They
usually have only one location but may have a handful of outlets
usually in the same geographic area and usually overseen by the
same small group of people.

Chain stores are owned or franchised by large retailers such as
Borders, Barnes and Noble, MPH.

Online booksellers like Amazon.com, Barnes & Noble sell books over
the Internet.
27
The Reader




Bibliophiles read 50 or more books each year.
Casual readers read several books a year.
Required readers read only what they must read for
school or work.
Nonreaders fall into two categories:

Illiterates cannot read.

Alliterates can read but do not.
28
BOOKS: THE DEFINING FEATURES
1.
2.
3.
Books are the least “mass” of the
mass media.
Books can have a cultural impact that
far outweighs their modest audience
size.
Books are the oldest and most
enduring of the mass media.
BOOKS: THE DEFINING FEATURES
1.
Books are the least "mass" of the mass media. It took
about 40 years to sell 20 million copies of Gone with the
Wind, but more than 50 million people watched the
movie version in a single evening when it came to
television. Even an unsuccessful TV show might have a
million people in its audience, whereas a popular
hardcover book might make the best-seller list with
125,000 copies sold.
BOOKS: THE DEFINING FEATURES
2.
3.
Books, however, can have a cultural impact that far outweighs
their modest audience size.
 Dr. Spock and his Baby and Child Care altered the way
parents brought up their children.
 Rachel Carson's Silent Spring changed the nation's attitudes
toward the environment.
Books are the oldest and most enduring of the mass media.
 Many individuals have extensive collections of books in their
own home libraries. People throw away newspapers and
magazines shortly after reading them, but most save their
books.
UNIT 5
ELECTRONIC MEDIA
An Overview of Today’s Recording Industry
New era of recording industry can be
observed within 3 perspectives:




Its ownership is international
Its production is fragmented
Its distribution is highly concentrated
An Overview of Today’s Recording
Industry: International Ownership
International Ownership

Four largest recording companies:

Warner, EMI, Sony, and Universal

EMI is a British firm

Sony BMG Music Entertainment is a global joint
venture equally owned by German Bertelsmann AG
and the U.S. subsidiary of Sony of Japan

Universal is owned by Vivendi, a French
conglomerate

Warner is owned by a Canadian group

However, the country of origin of each of these firms, however,
does not typically dictate the kind of music it tries to circulate in
the U.S.
An Overview of Today’s Recording Industry: Fragmented Production (cont…)
Fragmented Production

Fragmentation means that there are literally
thousands of companies turning out recordings that
they would like to sell.

These recording firms are called independents
because they are not owned by the four major
companies.

Independent labels sometimes succeed by handling
controversial music that the majors won’t touch.

One reason for the rise of independent firms is that
newly affordable powerful digital recording
technology enabled small companies to produce
compact disks.
An Overview of Today’s Recording Industry:
Concentration of Distribution (cont…)
Concentration of Distribution


The four major recording companies are
the distributors of choice because of the
immense power they bring to the
marketplace.
Represent many popular artists – these
companies have access to stores and
radio stations for the promotion.
Singles vs Albums


The recording industry releases its product in 2
lengths:

Singles – contains only one or two songs.

Albums – a collection of a dozen or more
individual song.
Artists and labels make their money from album sales,
and the recording companies often do not price
physical singles so they are worthwhile purchases
relative to the albums.
FM Radio and AM Radio





FM/AM technologies

A means of radio broadcasting. Terrestrial radio
stations broadcast using one of 2 technologies, AM or
FM

AM stands for amplitude modulation, and FM stands
for frequency modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
FM radio was invented by Edwin Armstrong
Utilizing the band between 88 and 108 megahertz
FM signals are marked by high levels of clarity, but
rarely travel more than eighty miles from the sites of
transmission.
FM Radio and AM Radio
AM radio



Utilizing the band between 540 and 1,700
megahertz
AM signals are prone to frequent static
interference, but their high powered
signals allow them to travel great
distances, especially at night.
Commercial Radio Stations vs
Noncommercial Radio Stations
In terms of funding, there are two types of radio
stations:

Commercial stations

Noncommercial stations
Commercial stations
 The vast majority of stations are commercial
stations.
 These stations support themselves financially by
selling time on their airwaves to advertisers.
Commercial Radio Stations vs
Noncommercial Radio Stations (cont…)
Noncommercial stations
 Do not receive financial support from
advertisers in the traditional sense of
airing commercials.
 Most noncommercial stations are
located at the very left of the FM band
(between 88 and 92 MHz).
TODAY’S TELEVISION INDUSTRY
Divided into three domains:




TV broadcasting
Cable services
Satellite services
TV BROADCASTING


The most popular domain of the
three. It’s signals are transmitted
from towers owned by local stations
on frequencies allocated to them.
People can receive the signals
without charge by simply turning on a
television set.
TV BROADCASTING



Most of the stations are what people in the TV industry
call commercial; the rest are noncommercial.
Commercial stations:

Make their money by selling time on their airwaves
to advertisers.
Noncommercial stations:

Receive support in other ways, such as viewer
donations and donations from private foundations
and commercial firms in return for billboards.
Billboards are mentions of a sponsor’s name or
products at the start or end of programs airing on
the station.
CABLE AND SATELLITE SERVICES


Cable networks – program channels offered by a cable
television system to its customers in addition to what is
broadcast over the airwaves in their geographic area.
Cable television refers to businesses that provide
programming to subscribers via a wire (historically a
coaxial cable, but increasingly a fiber optic line). Cable
subscribers rent set-top boxes or use cable “smart cards”
to receive their programs.
CABLE AND SATELLITE SERVICES
(CONT…)


Satellite television means programming that comes
directly to the home from a satellite orbiting the
earth. Satellite viewers need a receiver and a
satellite dish. It allows a household to receive
hundreds of channels.
The signals are delivered digitally to a small dish
installed on the side of a house; a set-top box
converts the digital signals to analog signals that
are accepted by TV.


Creating a channel lineup is a high-priority job for cable and satellite
exhibitors.
The lineups set by cable and satellite exhibitors depends on the amount
of money that particular networks charge exhibitors for carrying their
networks.
PRODUCING CHANNEL LINEUPS: COVERING COST
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING

The possibility of competition and a desire for consumer goodwill led
cable or satellite system to keep their most basic rates relatively low and
to charge more for extra packages of programs. This strategy of
charging different amounts for different levels of programming is called
tiering. The number and variety of tiers has gone up dramatically in
recent years, especially among cable firms.
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING

The most common types of tiers are:

basic cable

Expanded basic

digital cable

premium channels

pay-per-view (PPV)

Video on Demand (VOD)
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING
i.
Basic cable

In many cable systems, this entry-level
service offers the customer all the
broadcast channels available in the area,
channels with local government and other
“access” programming, and a small
number of subscription channels, e.g.:
ABNxcess (the first digital cable TV in
Malaysia) were introduced in 2013, charge
only RM158.99 a month. It offers more
that 50 international channels, 10 HD
channel, 7 ‘free to air’ channel, and
internet connection.
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING
ii.




Expanded Basic
The tier really gets the subscriber into the menu of cable
programming. Comcast’s version of this tier in 2007 provided 70
channels at around $51 per month.
Apart from TBS and TNT (which tend to appear in basic lineups),
common networks in the enhanced lineup are CNN (news), ESPN
(sports), USA (general programming), Discovery (science and
nature), Nickelodeon (programming aimed at children), the Cartoon
Network, the Nashville Network (country music), Fox News, Lifetime
(programming aimed at women), MTV (music), A&E (historical and
cultural documentaries), Black Entertainment Television, and the
Weather channel.
Family HD Pack –RM51.95 per month (10 HD channels): Family +
basic HD
(AXN HD, Food Network Asia HD, Disney XD HD)
Sports bundle: RM82.95, Movies bundle:RM71.95, Learning + Kids
Bundle: RM57.95
EXPANDED BASIC
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING
iii.


Digital cable
In an attempt to compete with the larger number
of channels that DirecTV and Echostar offer, some
cable companies have been using digital
compression technology to deliver over one
hundred channels to their customers.
Many of these channels offer pay-per-view movies
or music audio services. The cable systems
charge extra for this digital tier.
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING
iv.



Premium channels
This terms refers to HBO, Showtime,
Cinemax, Encore and other networks
that charge individual monthly fees for
receiving their programming, although
discounted “packages” are available.
Premium sports channels are also part
of the pay cable menu in many areas.
Cable and satellite systems share the
fees with the pay networks.
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING: PREMIUM CHANNELS
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING
iv.



Pay-per-view (PPV)
In this type of programming, the cable or satellite
company charges the customer for viewing an individual
program, such as a boxing event, a live broadcast of a
concert, or a newly released motion picture.
The customer must wait for the specific time that the
program airs to view it, or the customer can use a digital
video recorder (DVR) to capture the program at a time.
Depending on the sophistication of the system, the
customer phones the firm or simply enters a choice into
a set-top box. The charge appears on the customer’s bill.
PAY-PER-VIEW (PPV)
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING: PAY-PER-VIEW
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING:
COMMON TYPES OF TIERING
vi.




Video on Demand (VOD)
This is a more interactive technology than PPV. With
video on demand, a customer simply uses the remote
control to navigate to a menu of programs and then to
click on the program he/she wants to watch.
Unlike PPV, where the customer has to wait for the
show to appear at a certain time, the program
immediately appears for viewing.
The customer get to watch whatever he/she wants to
watch whenever he/she wants to watch it.
Most cable/satellite services offer a per-program fee.
CABLE AND SATELLITE TIERING: VIDEO ON
DEMAND
ASTRO B. YOND: VIDEO ON DEMANDS
UNIT 6
ORIENTASI INDUSTRI MEDIA
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIA
ORGANISATIONS
5 FEATURES TO DEFINE ORGANIZATIONS THAT PRODUCE
MASS COMMUNICATION:
1. Mass comm is produced by complex and formal
organizations.
2. Mass comm organizations have multiple gatekeepers.
3. Mass comm organizations need a great deal of money to
operate.
4. Mass comm organizations exist to make profit.
5. Mass comm organizations are highly competitive.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BROADCAST
TELEVISION
The TV industry is divided into three segments:
1.
Production

Production for the mass media means the creation
of materials for distribution through one or more
mass media vehicles
2.
Distribution

Distribution is the delivery of produced material to
the point where it will be shown to its intended
audience; it is an activity which takes place out of
public view.
3.
Exhibition

It is the activity of presenting mass media materials to
audiences for viewing or purchase.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BROADCAST
TELEVISION: PRODUCTION


The production element is responsible for providing
the programming that is ultimately viewed by the
audience.
Pretend for a moment that you are the manager of a
local TV station in your hometown. Your station must
provide 24 hours of programming every day, or
approximately 8,800 hours of programming each
year. Where does one get all this programming?
There are three basic sources:
(1) local production
(2) syndicated programming
(3) for most stations, network programs.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BROADCAST
TELEVISION: PRODUCTION (cont…)
Local production consists of those programs that
are produced in the local station’s own studio
or on location with the use of station’s equipment
A syndicator typically makes a deal
for one show (or one series of shows) at a time
A network provides a regular schedule
of programming materials
to its affiliate stations for broadcast
ORGANIZATION OF THE BROADCAST
TELEVISION: PRODUCTION

The most common local productions are:
 The station's daily newscasts, typically broadcast in the
early morning, at noon, in the early evening, and in
the late evening. These newscasts attract large
audiences, which in turn attract advertisers. As a result
the local news accounts for a major proportion of the
ad revenue that is generated by a local station.
 Other locally produced programming might consist of
local sporting events, early-morning interview
programs, and public affairs discussion shows. It would
be difficult, however, for a local station to fill its entire
schedule with locally produced programming. As a
result, most stations turn to programming produced by
other sources.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BROADCAST
TELEVISION: DISTRIBUTION


The distribution function is handled by the
TV networks, cable and syndication
companies.
The three main elements in the distribution
segment of television are:



The broadcast networks
Cable and satellite networks
Syndication companies
ORGANIZATION OF THE BROADCAST TELEVISIO
DISTRIBUTION
SYNDICATION COMPANIES



Syndication companies , provide another kind of program distribution.
These organizations lease taped or filmed programs to local television
stations in each local market.
Sometimes, as mentioned, the syndication company also produces the
program, but more often it distribute programs produced by other firms.
Local stations that purchase a syndicated program receive exclusive rights
to show that program in their market. Usually, a station buys a package of
programs—perhaps as many as 120 episodes or more—and the contract
specifies how many times each program can be repeated.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BROADCAST
TELEVISION: DISTRIBUTION
SYNDICATION COMPANIES (CONT…)

Syndication companies try to sell their shows in as
many TV markets as possible. The greater the
coverage of the show, the more appealing it is to
national advertisers. Top-rated syndicated shows, such
as Wheel of Fortune and American Idol, The Oprah
Winfrey Show are seen in nearly all TV markets.
GLOBAL TV



CNN channels air seen in more than 170 million
households and thousands of hotel rooms worldwide.
CNN International, started in 1990, is available on all
continents except Antarctica.
Sports network ESPN International is seen in more
than 140 countries. Fox Sports International
specializes in soccer coverage.
In entertainment, MTV reaches more than 400
million households and the Cartoon Network,
Nickelodeon, and the Discovery Networks are
popular all over the globe.
GLOBAL TV: FORMAT ADAPTATION


U.S. TV series are still popular throughout the world, but the
economic downturn has prompted many countries to produce
cheaper local programs rather than buy expensive imports. In
many countries, prime time is dominated by local productions
and U.S. shows are seen in the daytime or late at night.
Currently, international buyers of TV programs are more
interested in buying scripts or formats of U.S. shows & turning
them into local dramas, comedies, and game shows. There are
dozens of foreign versions of Wheel of Fortune. There are
Spanish-language versions of Desperate Housewives. Of course,
this arrangement works both ways as the U.S. has imported
formats from overseas and turned them into domestic series,
such as American Idol and Survivor.
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Audience segmentation
Convergence
Increased audience control
Multiple platforms
User-generated content
Mobile media
Social media
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
1.


Audience segmentation
Media audiences becoming less “mass” and more
selective.
In the early emergence of TV or radio, the audience
do not have many channels to choose. Thus, they just
tune to one channel. However, there are more
channels today to choose from.
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
2.
Convergence

The most important type of convergence is device
convergence- combining the functions of two or three
devices into one mechanism.

Apple's iPhone, for example, is a phone, an MP3 player,
and a camera, and it can connect to the Internet. The
latest model video game platforms can also play DVDs.
Some cell phones incorporate navigation systems.

Experts predict that eventually the home PC will converge
with the TV set in one information appliance that will
include e-mail, phone, Internet, DVD playback and TV
functions.
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
3.

Increased audience control
Audience members are more in charge of what they want to
see and/or hear and when they want to do it. Let's take
television as an example. For many years viewers had to
watch programs broadcast by local stations and the major
networks according to the media's schedule. However, recent
technological advances have given more power to the
consumer. The VCR allowed time shifting, or recording a
program to be viewed at a more convenient time. Remote
controls made it easier for viewers to select what thev wanted
to watch. Cable and satellite channels offered hundreds of
new viewing opportunities.
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
4.


Multiple platforms
“Everything. Everywhere”. This has been the mantra at main
media companies as they try to adapt to the changing world of
media technology. The strategy is to make content available to
consumers using a number of delivery methods to a number of
receiving devices (or multiple platforms).
Music videos may be the best illustration of this trend. For main
years music video fans had to be content watching videos on
MTV, or one of the other cable/ satellite networks. Then Web sites
began streaming music videos. Recording companies realized that
consumers were watching more videos on their computer screens
than on their TV screens. Apple’s video iPod, cell phones, and
tablet computers opened up other possibilities.
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
5.


User-generated content
User-generated content or peer production was
a hot trend during the last few years but has
recently slowed down. Of course, some Web
sites such as YouTube, and Wikipedia depend
heavily on user-generated content.
On the other hand, magazine and book
publishing, motion pictures, radio, sound
recording, and entertainment television make
relatively little use of user-generated material.
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
6.

Mobile media
Much of modern mass communication involves
people looking at screens. For the past couple of
decades, the two main screens have been the TV
screen and the computer screen. Now a parade of
small screens has joined the lineup: the screens
on smartphones, iPod, tablet computers, handheld
gaming devices.
EMERGING MEDIA TRENDS
7.
Social media
 Social media are online communications that use special
techniques that involve participation, conversation, sharing,
collaboration, and linkage. Participation is the simplest
technique that defines social media.
 Blogs and other Web sites that allow people to comment and to
respond to one another are examples of the conversation
function. Sharing is illustrated by YouTube and other sites
where individuals can create and upload content for others to
see. There are sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Google
Groups, and Twitter where people can link up with friends
(both close and distant) and form their own social networks
and communities. There is no doubt that social media have
become popular. At the start of 2011, Facebook had more
than 500 million users.
Unit 9
Teori Media Massa
Teori Media Massa
Unit ini terbahagi kepada 2 bahagian:
 Teori normatif media
 Teori komunikasi massa
82
INTRO TO UNIT 9
TEORI MEDIA MASSA (NORMATIF)


Memberi pengenalan ringkas
kepada teori-teori media massa
sejak media massa wujud
dalam masyarakat
TEORI-TEORI NORMATIF MEDIA

Definisi 'Normatif' - “Yang menentukan atau
berasaskan peraturan yang baku atau
standard”.
Teori Normatif Media adalah
berkaitan dengan pengaruh nilai dan norma
sesuatu sistem masyarakat terhadap operasi
media. Teori-teori ini muncul melalui
pemerhatian.
TEORI-TEORI NORMATIF MEDIA
Siebert et al. telah membahagikan teori normatif
kepada 4 kategori:
1.Teori Autoritarian
2.Teori Libertarian
3.Teori Komunis Soviet
4. Teori Tanggungjawab Sosial
Teori Akhbar Autoritarian





Teori ini menjadi doktrin asas di kebanyakan tempat di dunia.
Teori tertua wujud di akhir zaman pembaharuan (kurun ke 17)
hingga penghujung kurun ke-17.
Peranan akhbar berfungsi dari atas ke bawah. Pemerintah
bertanggungjawab menapis berita dan pastikannya sokongan
rakyat berterusan kpd pihak pemerintah.
Akhbar jadi alat pemerintah dlm menerajui negara/kerajaan.
Contoh:Keluarga Tudor di England, Empirial Rusia – Rusia,
Empirial Jepun - Jepun
Antara Prinsip Teori Akhbar Autoritarian






Akhbar tidak boleh mengeluarkan berita yg bertentangan dgn
pemerintah.
Akhbar perlu menangkis segala perkara negatif yg
memburukkan kerajaan.
Akhbar perlu pastikan berita tidak mengganggu ketenteraman
awam.
Akhbar perlu mengambil hati rakyat supaya ketidakpuasan hati
orang ramai dielakkan.
Berita-berita yg ditapis perlu bertujuan memberi sokongan kpd
kerajaan.
Wartawan / media tiada kebebasan mengumpul, menapis dan
menerbitkan maklumat/berita.
Teori Akhbar Libertarian







Ia mula berkembang pada awal abad ke-18.
Lahir ekoran pertentangan kepada teori autoritarian (kebebasan dlm
mendapatkan maklumat).
Teori ini menganggap setiap manusia sbg makhluk yg rasional yang
mempunyai akal. Oleh itu, dalam menentukan kebenaran, ianya tidak
terletak kepada pihak pemerintah tetapi dimiliki oleh semua manusia.
Teori ini mendesak akhbar agar bebas drd pengaruh dan penguasaan
pihak pemerintah dan akhbar miliki kebebasan mutlak – sehingga
mustahil untuk dilaksanakan secara efektif.
Drpd teori libertarian ini, adalah dilihat satu usaha untuk melindungi
pihak media/akhbar.
Dr segi kebebasan, ianya dilihat sebagai seolah tiada batasan.
 Contoh: USA (Bill of Rights), Britain, Sweden.
Antara Prinsip Teori Akhbar Libertarian




Akhbar hendaklah bebas sepenuhnya drpd
pengaruh pihak ketiga. Pemerintah tidak ada hak
menentukan berita yg sepatutnya disebarkan.
Akhbar dimiliki individu / kumpulan yg boleh
bergerak bebas tanpa dipengaruhi pemerintah.
Tiada sebarang tekanan / sekatan / paksaan, (dll)
terhadap sebarang berita yang disebarkan.
Tiada
sebarang
sekatan
berhubung
pengimportan dan pengeksportan maklumat.
Teori Akhbar Komunis Soviet

Berlandaskan teori Autoritarian. Media beroperasi semata-mata utk kepentingan pihak pemerintah.

Akhbar milik pemerintah sepenuhnya (tiada lesen individu / kumpulan).

Akhbar tidak bermotifkan keuntungan dari segi wang / material.


Keuntungan atau kejayaan bagi mereka ialah dapat menanamkan fahaman komunis Marx dan Lenin
ke dlm pemikiran & kehidupan rakyat Soviet.

Di Soviet, dasar-dasar negara, arahan-arahan kerajaan dan perancangan kerajaan adalah dianggap
berita. Dengan itu wujudlah berita yang mendahului zaman ataupun berita yang telah lama berlalu
tetapi dikeluarkan.

Bagi Soviet, istilah berita mutakhir atau ketinggalan zaman adalah tidak penting.
Teori Akhbar Komunis Soviet (Cont…)



Tiada berita yang lewat / cepat – yang utama
ialah penyaluran yg tepat dgn waktunya.
Berita boleh ditulis sblm berlaku / ditulis
walaupun telah lama berlaku – TRAGEDI
CHERNOBYL.
Contoh:Kerajaan Soviet Union satu ketika
dahulu.. (Khususnya ketika pemerintahan
Lenin & Stalin)
Antara Prinsip
Teori Akhbar Komunis Soviet




Tiada pemilikan media oleh individu dan semuanya
dimiliki oleh pemerintah.
Media berperanan menanamkan unsur-unsur positif
dlm masyarakat seperti yg ditetapkan pemerintah.
Akhbar sbg agen utama yg memberikan gambaran
positif terhadap fahaman Marxist-Lenist .
Akhbar perlu sokong segala tindakan kerajaan
tanpa berbelah bahagi.
Teori Tangungjawab Sosial




Ia berkembang pada abad ke 20. Tercetus ekoran
masyarakat luntur kepercayaan terhadap Teori
Libertarian (berlaku monopoli peribadi dlm
pemilikan media).
Juga lahir kerana masyarakat mula sedar bahawa
pihak
akhbar
tidak
lagi
melaksanakan
tanggungjawab awam.
Akhbar tidak dipengaruhi oleh kepentingan awam
dan org awam tidak diberikan sebarang hak.
Pendirian utama: Kebebasan adalah seiring
dengan kewajipan.
Antara Prinsip
Teori Akhbar Tanggungjawab Sosial






Asasnya sama dgn teori Libertarian. Media perlu bertanggungjawab
dlm menyebarkan maklumat.
Media perlu menerima dan memenuhi sepenuhnya sebagai ejen
dengan tanggungjawab khusus kepada aspek sosial.
Berita-berita yg disebarkan perlu profesional, tepat, berobjektif, dan
berfokus.
Akhbar perlu berkecuali dalam hal-hal keganasan / jenayah /
provokasi.
Masyarakat punyai hak & ruang utk kemukakan pendapat.
Wartawan & media punyai tanggungjawab kpd masyarakat,
majikan, kerajaan & pasaran.
Contoh: Malaysia, beberapa agensi media Britain dan Amerika
Syarikat – (Post-Dispatch, Courier-Journal, Milwaukee journal).
LAIN-LAIN TEORI MEDIA
Teori Media untuk Pembangunan
• Lahir
ekoran
kesetiaan
masyarakat
terhadap
perkembangan ekonomi, politik & sosial.
Teori Media Demokrasi
• Mengutamakan kehendak, minat & inspirasi penerima
dlm kelompok politik tertentu. Gabungan pelbagai
prinsip lain (Libertarian, Sosialisme, dll.).
Teori Media Islam
• Ia lahir hasil drpd usaha mencari sistem alternatif media
yg berkesan. Pelbagai agama lain juga mula ‘melihat’
ke dlm ajaran masing-masing.
TEORI MEDIA MASSA
Perkembangan Teori Media Massa


“Menerangkan sejarah dan perkembangan
teori.

Menerangkan mengenai peranan teori.

Memperkenalkan era-era tertentu dalam
perkembangan teori komunikasi”




Perkembangan
Teori Komunikasi Massa
Definisi:
Teori: Hipotesis-hipotesis atau andaian-andaian
yang telah dibuktikan benar.
Teori terbahagi kepada dua disiplin ilmu: Disiplin
Sains Sosial & Disiplin Sains Tulen:
Teori dlm Disiplin Sains Sosial lazimnya
berbentuk andaian umum yg terbukti benar.
Perkembangan
dibahagikan kepada empat (4) era:




Pertama: (ERA MASYARAKAT MASSA) - awal
kurun ke-20 (1900an) hingga 1940an.
Kedua: (ERA KESAN MEDIA TERHAD /
PERSPEKTIF SAINTIFIK) - 1950-1970.
Ketiga: (ERA KAJIAN BUDAYA) – subur di
Eropah sejak 1960an hingga sekarang.
Keempat: (ERA KESAN SEDERHANA) –
bercambah di Amerika sejak 1970an hingga skrg.
Perincian:

Pada setiap era, lahir pelbagai andaian. Drpd setiap
andaian, lahir pelbagai teori.

Hanya teori yg signifikan akan dibincangkan.

Teori-teori ini merupakan satu cara bagi pengkaji
masyarakat dan media massa merumuskan reaksi
masyarakat pada satu-satu era terhadap kandungan
program media massa.
ERA MASYARAKAT MASSA
1900 - 1940an
Era Masyarakat Massa:




Latar belakang:

Era ini merujuk kepada dekad-dekad awal bermulanya
pengaruh filem, radio dan televisyen.
Andaian:
Masyarakat amat dipengaruhi oleh mesej dari media massa.
Mereka mengandaikan mesej dari media massa memberi
kesan yang kuat dan negatif terhadap masyarakat masyarakat amat dipengaruhi mesej dan bertindak mengikut
yg dipropagandakan oleh media.

Andaian melalui pemerhatian ini melahirkan Teori Peluru
Ajaib / Teori Jarum Suntikan.
Era Masyarakat Massa:
Teori-teori: Teori Masyarakat Massa / Teori
Peluru Ajaib / Teori Jarum Suntikan.



Mengandaikan mesej drpd media akan
mempengaruhi setiap ahli masyarakat (yg lemah
& tidak berupaya menapis / menepis mesej
tersebut).
Masyarakat hanya mengikut segala saranan /
cadangan / propaganda pihak media. Kesan
media dianggap kuat dan bertindak secara
langsung (serta merta).
Era Masyarakat Massa:




Kajian-kajian berkaitan:
Beberapa kajian menguatkan teori ini.
Kajian dibiayai oleh ’Payne Fund’ (1930)
terhadap filem Gangster mendapati media
massa berpengaruh.
Peristiwa gempar drama radio 1938 berjudul
War of the Worlds telah mengukuhkan teori
ini.
ERA KESAN MEDIA TERHAD /
PERSPEKTIF SAINTIFIK)
1950-1970
Era Kesan Media Terhad /
Perspektif Saintifik:

Latar belakang:

Era ini adalah evolusi drp era pertama. Ia amat
berpengaruh seawal tahun 1940an hingga 1970an

Dicetuskan oleh penyelidikan Lazarsfeld & Bernard
Berelson (1940) mengenai kesan media terhadap
pemilihan calon presiden Amerika Syarikat - kajian
dilakukan di Erie County, Ohio, USA.

Hasil kajian mendapati media massa tidak mempunyai
pengaruh kuat terhadap keputusan individu dlm
memilih calon presiden. Mereka lebih terpengaruh dgn
opinion leaders dari kalangan kawan / keluarga.
Era Kesan Media Terhad /
Perspektif Saintifik:
Andaian:




Berpandukan hasil kajian tersebut, Lazarsfeld
mengandaikan bahawa majoriti masyarakat juga
bertindak sedemikian dalam menghadapi
pengaruh media massa.
Lazarsfeld mengandaikan bahawa pengaruh
media bersifat terhad.
Andaian berdasarkan kajian ini telah
menghasilkan Teori Kesan Terhad.
Era Kesan Media Terhad /
Perspektif Saintifik:
Teori-teori: Teori Kesan Terhad.




Mengandaikan bahawa media memberi kesan
amat terhad (minima) kepada masyarakat.
Ia perlu bekerjasama dengan faktor-faktor lain
untuk mempengaruhi masyarakat.
Walaubagaimanapun, media dapat memainkan
penekanan kepada sesuaty kepercayaan.

Era Kesan Media Terhad /
Perspektif Saintifik:
Kajian-kajian berkaitan:

Penyelidikan awal oleh Lazarsfeld & Bernard
Berelson (1940). Hasil kajian mendapati media
memberi kesan yg terhad terhadap pengundi
semasa kempen. Tapi, media berperanan dlm
membentuk kepercayaan masyarakat terhadap
sesuatu perkara.

Joseph T. Klapper, 1960, The Effect of Mass
Communication: “Komunikasi massa tidak memberi
kesan secukupnya terhadap penerima utk memberi
pengaruh serta-merta. Ia faktor sederhana yg
bekerjasama dgn faktor-faktor lain.
ERA KAJIAN BUDAYA
1960an hingga sekarang
(Eropah)
Era Kajian Budaya:

Latar belakang:


Pengkaji Eropah tidak begitu terpengaruh dgn
perkembangan di Amerika pada 1940 dan 1960.
Eropah berpegang kpd aliran neo-marxis - yg
berpendapat media massa dikuasai golongan elit.
Era Kajian Budaya:

Andaian:

Media menjadi alat golongan tertentu (elit) dlm
mendominasi masyarakat (hegemony / dominasi/
status quo). Andaian ini menjadi satu kepercayaan
setelah pelbagai peristiwa besar melanda benua
Eropah.

Antara teori: Teori Budaya, Teori Kritikal, Teori
Pembentukan Realiti Sosial, dan Teori
Penyuburan.
Era Kajian Budaya:
Teori-teori: Teori Penyuburan



Sekiranya sesuatu individu itu didedahkan kepada
maklumat yg sama secara berterusan, lambat laun
ia akan mempengaruhi mindanya dalam
membentuk nilai, peranan, dan persepsi yang
dianggap sesuai bagi dirinya.
Individu tersebut akhirnya akan menganggap
bahawa realiti kehidupan adalah sama dgn
gambaran media – khususnya televisyen yg
menguasai suasana simbolik.
Era Kajian Budaya:
Kajian-kajian berkaitan:
 Teori Penyuburan (George Gerbner & rakan-rakan,
1973).
 Televisyen ialah senjata budaya (Gerbner). Ia
digunakan secara pemujukan – bukan ancaman. Ia
digunakan oleh kuasa industri bagi mengekal,
menstabil dan memperkukuhkan pengaruh mereka.
 Impak maksima boleh berlaku kepada kanak-kanak
ekoran psikologi mereka masih rapuh.
ERA KESAN SEDERHANA
sejak 1970an hingga skrg
(Amerika)
Era Kesan Sederhana:
Latar belakang:




Ia bercambah di Amerika sejak awal 1970an
sehingga kini.
Pengkaji Amerika mendapati kandungan media
membawa kesan signifikan dan berpengaruh
terhadap masyarakatnya.
Idea ini pertama kali dikemukakan oleh Walter
Lippmann pd zaman penny press di Amerika
melalui bukunya Public Opinion (bab The World
Outside and The Pictures in Our Heads).

Era Kesan Sederhana:
Andaian:

Pengkaji Amerika mengandaikan kandungan media beri
kesan ketara dlm jangka panjang - sedar/tidak, rela/paksa

Ini wujudkan pergantungan berterusan kpd kandungan media
– selagi seseorang berasa selesa & puas.

Media berpengaruh membentuk persepsi masyarakat. Ia
menentukan isu yg akan dibincang / difikirkan. Langkah ini
kerap diguna oleh media hari ini dlm mengalih/membentuk
tumpuan masyarakat terhadap sesuatu isu – sekalipun tujuan
mereka murni.

Andaian ini melahirkan Teori Penentuan Agenda dan Teori
Pilin Kesenyapan (Spiral of Silence).
Era Kesan Sederhana:
Teori-teori: Teori Penentuan Agenda



Agenda ditakrifkan sebagai isu / berita yg
dimuatkan dlm media massa. Penentuan agenda
merujuk kpd proses mewujudkan persamaan
agenda media dgn agenda masyarakat.
Sekaligus, isu / berita yg disebarkan media
mempunyai persamaan dgn isu yg dibincangkan
masyarakat -sekalipun frekuensinya tidak sama.
Era Kesan Sederhana:
Kajian-kajian berkaitan:
 Maxwell Mc Combs & Donald Shaw (1972)
melakukan kajian mendalam.
 Hasil kajian: Media amat berpengaruh dlm
menentukan isu yg difikirkan masyarakat, dan
wujud pertalian rapat antara media dgn isu yg
dibincangkan masyarakat.
TEORI-TEORI LAIN: TEORI
KEGANASAN MEDIA
Teori Keganasan Media
• Kajian Payne Fund (1930) - filem “Gangster”.
Wujudnya perkaitan kandungan media dgn
tingkahlaku antisosial.
• Kajian ini menjadi pencetus kpd perkembangan
kajian keganasan media seterusnya.
•
* Sila lihat modul m/s 86 hingga 91
TEORI-TEORI LAIN: KESAN NEGATIF
MEDIA TERHADAP TINGKAHLAKU
Teori Keganasan Media
•
4 Faktor Menentukan Perubahan Tingkahlaku
Kanak-Kanak
1. Rangsangan / Excessive excitement (teruja)
2. Tidak
menyalahkan/Membenarkan / 'It's Okay'
syndrome (terbiasa)
3. Kurang Sensitif / Lack of sensitivity (toleransi)
4. Peniruan (Bandura - anak patung 'Bobo‘)
* Sila lihat modul m/s 92 hingga 94
LAIN-LAIN FAKTOR
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Umur
Gender
Jumlah Tontonan
Pengaruh Ibubapa
Pencapaian Akademik
* Sila lihat modul m/s 94 hingga 96
Kesimpulan Unit 9

Teori-teori akhbar normatif yang paling
utama terbahagi kpd empat (4).

Setiap satunya bertujuan membentuk
operasi media massa mereka agar
berfungsi dengan baik dan menepati
keperluan masyarakat.
Unit 10
Etika dan undangundang media massa
INTRO TO UNIT 10
Etika dan Undang-undang Media
Massa



“Mengenali persoalan etika secara
ringkas, dan..
Memahami kepentingan undangundang media massa secara umum”.
Pengenalan Etika:
Pengenalan:
 Etika - peraturan perlakuan / prinsip moral yg
memberikan panduan kpd sesuatu tindakan.
Sejarah Etika: Perspektif Barat:
 Menurut perspektif Barat, istilah etika dan falsafah
moral lahir dari istilah Greek dan Latin yang
bermaksud ’custom’. Pada abad ke 5 S.M., Aristotle
menulis huraian panjang tentang etika Nicomachean Ethics.
Peringatan!
Bagaimanapun, kita tidak akan
membincangkan perihal etika secara
panjang lebar. Memadai bagi kita
mengetahui beberapa aspek berhubung
etika dalam subjek ini. Persoalan etika
telah diperincikan dalam subjek khusus
Etika Komunikasi.
ETIKA KEWARTAWANAN
Etika: Definisi…
Definisi:



Sistem yg merangkumi prinsip / peri laku yg
boleh membimbing para wartawan agar
bertanggung jawab.. (Iaitu berupaya
menggunakan akal & daya taakulannya untuk
menilai dan membeza antara yg baik dgn yg
tidak – dan yg seumpama dgnnya).
Ia wujud dan berfungsi dlm minda wartawan dgn
berasaskan falsafah kebenaran dan kejujuran.
Kod-kod Etika di Malaysia:
Wartawan Malaysia memiliki dua (2) kod
etika:


1.Kod Perilaku Profesional Anggota Kesatuan
Kebangsaan Wartawan Malaysia (NUJ)

2.Tatasusila
Kewartawanan
(terkemudian sedikit berbanding NUJ)
Malaysia
Huraian Kod Perilaku
Profesional (NUJ )



Ada lapan (8) prinsip. Kandungannya serupa dgn lain-lain
kod etika kewartawanan dunia yg mengutamakan
kebenaran, kerahsiaan, kejujuran, dan hal-hal yg
seumpamanya.
Tetapi, prinsip kelapan kod kemudiannya dihalusi dalam
Tatasusila Kewartawanan Malaysia – agar tidak
disalahtafsirkan sebagai kebebasan tanpa had dan
sempadan.
Prinsip ke-8: "Wartawan mengiktiraf hak rakan-rakan
sekerjanya berhubung dgn soal-soal profesional bidang itu,
wartawan akan menolak sebarang bentuk campur tangan
drpd kerajaan / pihak-pihak lain".
Tatasusila
Kewartawanan Malaysia




Juga ada lapan (8) prinsip – tapi lebih tertumpu kpd usaha
memperincikan prinsip ke-8 Kod NUJ.
Kandungannya serupa dgn lain-lain kod etika kewartawanan
dunia yg mengutamakan kebenaran, kerahsiaan, kejujuran,
dan hal-hal yg seumpamanya.
Tetapi, prinsip ke-8 kod ini lebih menegaskan peri pentingnya
memahami undang-undang dan peraturan negara yg
berkaitan secara langsung dgn profesyen kewartawanan.
Prinsip yg ke-8: "Wartawan hendaklah memahami undangundang dan peraturan negara yg berkaitan secara langsung
dgn profesion mereka”.
KOD-KOD PERIKLANAN
Kod Amalan
Pengiklanan Malaysia



Dikawal garis panduan Lembaga Kepiawaian Periklanan /
Advertising Standard Autority (ASA) – (ditubuhkan pada
1977 bagi menetapkan peraturan tertentu supaya menjadi
panduan kpd agensi2 periklanan Malaysia.
Kod etika in digubal berasaskan Kod Periklanan Radio
Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) oleh Kementerian Penerangan
yg mengawal periklanan dalam media siaran kerajaan.
ASA hanyalah satu badan penasihat / pemerhati shj – tiada
kuasa menghalang / menghentikan penyiaran dan
percetakan sebarang iklan yg tidak mengikut kod etikanya .
Kod Periklanan Radio Televisyen
Malaysia (RTM) (Disemak 1983)


Tidak banyak beza berbanding Kod Amalan
Periklanan ASA. Diperkenalkan oleh
Kementerian Penerangan pada 27 Disember
1972. Berfokus kpd operasi Radio & TV (yg
menekankan aspek kejujuran,
kesopanan,dll.)
Terbahagi kpd (antaranya): Bhg Periklanan
Ubat-ubatan & Rawatan; Bhg Wanita dlm
Periklanan; & Bhg Lelaki dlm Periklanan.
Kod Periklanan Radio Televisyen
Malaysia (RTM) (Disemak 1983)


Kebanyakannya berbentuk tegahan – namun tak
lagi diamalkan slps tergubalnya Akta Penyiaran
1988 (yg memberi kuasa amat besar kpd Menteri
Penerangan).
Bidang kuasa ini termasuklah menentukan
kandungan bahan penyiaran yg difikirkan sesuai
dgn keperluan masyarakat – selain meminda
sebarang garis panduan yg difikirkan tidak lagi
relevan. Langkah ini bertujuan mempercepatkan
penyaluran maklumat seiring keperluan semasa
Keperluan & Tegahan
dalam Periklanan
Antara perkara yg ditegah:




Sebarang iklan yg mengakibatkan kecederaan
kpd kanak-kanak dari segi fizikal, mental dan
moral.
Sebarang iklan yg menampil (video / audio)
doktor, jururawat, atau pakar perubatan.
Sebarang iklan yg mengekspoitasi jantina (lelaki
mahupun perempuan).
Antara Barangan / Adegan
yg Tidak Boleh Diiklankan








Mesej2 peribadi -- ucapan tahniah dan takziah.
Ahli nujum / tukang tilik nasib dan sebagainya.
Rokok dan aksesorinya.
Tuala wanita dan lampin orang dewasa.
Pakaian yg mengandungi perkataan / simbol / mesej yg tidak
sopan...Pakaian dalam.
Adegan menonjolkan ketiak... Adegan kurang sopan / ghairah - (cium /
cumbu sesama dewasa).
Barangan diet - secara oral / aplikasi luar badan.
Lain2 barangan / adegan yg diputuskan oleh kementerian dari semasa
ke semasa.
* Sila lihat modul m/s 158 hingga 159
UNDANG-UNDANG MEDIA
DI MALAYSIA
UMUM 1

Perlembagaan Persekutuan menjamin
kebebasan bercakap dan berpersatuan bagi
warganegara asalkan tidak cenderung
kepada perkara-perkara yang negatif /
membawa kepada kejadian yg negatif –
mengikut perlembagaan / dasar2 / undang2 /
akta2 / garis panduan / kawal seliaan /
peraturan / yg seerti dengannya – kepada
negara dan masyarakatnya.
UMUM 2

Tidak sekali-kali boleh menyentuh /
membicarakan sebarang perkara / hak yg
telah diperuntukkan / ditegah dalam
perlembagaan / dasar2 / undang2 / akta2 /
garis panduan / kawal seliaan / peraturan /
yg seerti dengannya.
UMUM 3

Setiap intipati perlembagaan / dasar2 /
undang2 / akta2 / garis panduan / kawal
seliaan / peraturan / yg seerti dengannya,
saling berkait antara satu sama lain dari segi
perlaksanaannya.
Antara Undang2
& Akta Media di Malaysia :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Akta Hasutan, 1948 (Pindaan 1971)
Akta Mesin Cetak 1948 (Pindaan 1974)
Akta Kawalan Kemasukan Bahan2
Bercetak 1958 (Pindaan 1972)
Akta Keselamatan Dalam Negeri,1960
(telah dimansuhkan)
Akta Rahsia-Rahsia Rasmi, 1972
Definisi Ringkas:



Ordinan – Undang2 yg digubal sebelum
merdeka (disebut hanya bagi kes-kes lama
shj)
Enakmen – Undang2 yg digubal di peringkat
negeri
Akta – Undang2 yg digubal di peringkat
Persekutuan
Akta Hasutan, 1948
(Pindaan 1971)



Akta ini melarang seseorang drpd mengucap atau
menerbitkan sebarang kata-kata yg boleh menimbul /
mendorong berlakunya mudarat / implikasi negatif
terhadap setiap ahli masyarakat & negara.
Larangan / tegahan ini mencakupi segenap lapisan
masyarakat. Ia merangkumi pelbagai bentuk kata-kata
– secara lisan, bertulis, dirakam, dilakon / mana-mana
yg berkaitan.
Akta ini turut melarang mana-mana pihak mempersoal
sebarang perkara yg telah termaktub dlm
perlembagaan negara sewenang2nya.
Akta Mesin Cetak 1948
(Pindaan 1974)




Akta in digubal dan diluluskan pada thn bermulanya
Darurat Pertama negara ini (1948-1960).
Ia memberi kuatkuasa kpd Menteri Dalam Negeri utk
mengawal pemilikan mesin cetak kegunaan mesin
cetak utk menghasilkan penerbitan.
Menteri Dalam Negeri mempunyai kuasa yg besar
untuk memberi hak pemilikan mesin cetak ataupun
lesen penerbitan.
Beliau juga mempunyai hak untuk menarik balik apaapa lesen yg telah diberikan, sama ada penarikan
balik lesen itu sementara / memansuhkannya.
Akta Mesin Cetak 1948
(Pindaan 1974)

Syarat utama pemilikan lesen penerbitan ialah –
warganegara. Lain-lain syarat termasuklah:



mencetak nama penerbit / pencetaknya dlm setiap
keluaran penerbitan;
memaklumkan kpd Kementerian Dalam Negeri
tentang sebrg perubahan pengarang, pencetak,
ataupun pemilik syarikat penerbitan;
lesen pemilikan mesin cetak dan lesen penerbitan
bersiri (seperti akhbar dan majalah) perlu dipohon
setiap thn. Syarikat yg mendapat kelulusan akan
diberikan 'Nombor KDN'.
Akta Kawalan Kemasukan Bahanbahan Bercetak 1958 (Pindaan 1972)



Ia memberi kuatkuasa kpd Menteri Dalam Negeri (dan
KDN) utk mengawal bahan yg dianggap mengancam
keselamatan negara, ketenteraman awam ataupun akhlak.
Bahan bercetak ditakrifkan – (kesemua bahan bertulis /
bahan yg dicetak..sama ada yg dilihat / tidak; sbrg
rakaman suara manusia / muzik..sama ada pita, filem /
sbrg bahan yg melambangkan perkataan / idea).
Menteri Dalam Negeri juga berhak menyekat kemasukan
sbrg bahan dari luar negara yg dianggap berbahaya kpd
keselamatan negara, ketenteraman awam dan akhlak.
Akta Rahsia-Rahsia Rasmi, 1972


Akta ini melarang sebarang individu drpd
mengutip, mengumpul, merakam, menerbit
atau memberi apa-apa maklumat rahsia yg
rasmi, artikel, dokumen yg bertujuan
digunakan (atau mungkin dipergunakan) oleh
musuh negara.
Kes pertama yg dibicarakan ialah kes
Kerajaan Malaysia lawan Encik Lim Kit Siang
(1978). Mahkamah mendapati Encik Lim
bersalah kerana membocorkan rahsia
negara.


Kesimpulan Unit 10:
Meskipun Malaysia memiliki pelbagai undangundang dan akta yang mempunyai perkaitan
dengan media massa, namun ia bukanlah
bertujuan mengekang kebebasan media
daripada membuat liputan secara bebas, adil,
dan saksama.
Sebaliknya ia bertujuan menjaga sensitiviti,
dan memupuk integrasi sesama ahli
masyarakatnya
Unit 11
Kerjaya dalam industri
media
INTRO TO UNIT 9


Tuntutan & Cabaran Kerjaya
Masa Depan
“Memberi pengenalan ringkas
pelbagai keperluan pengamal
media massa pada masa
hadapan dalam berdepan dengan
dunia komunikasi serba pantas
dan mancabar”.
UNIT 11
Tuntutan & Cabaran Kerjaya Masa Depan


Terdapat Empat Aspek Yang Perlu Diberi
Perhatian

1.
Fleksibiliti

2.
Penyesuaian dan Perundingan

3.
Tanggungjawab dan Akauntabiliti

4.
Sensitiviti dan Inisiatif Yang Tinggi
Fleksibiliti
Wartawan masa depan juga perlu fleksibal atau anjal
dengan tuntutan persekitaran.
Kesemua tuntutan itu lahir ekoran drpd perkmbngan pesat
teknologi komunikasi maklumat (Paul Kennedy, 1993).
 Para wartawan masa depan dan pengamal media perlu
bersedia menghadapi sebarang kemungkinan - apa yg betul
boleh menjadi salah dlm sekelip mata.

 Prinsip & etika juga berkadar masa dgn tempat dan fokus
berita. Kerjaya masa depan menuntut tahap fleksibaliti yang
tinggi drpd para wartawannya.
Penyesuaian dan Perundingan




Wartawan perlu sesuaikan diri secara pantas dgn
persekitaran teknologi terbaru. Sekiranya terdapat
perkara yg begitu bertentangan dgn diri dan prinsip
wartawan itu, maka hendaklah berunding.
Ini kerana stail dan kemahiran pemberitaan
berubah mengikut masa ekoran perkembangan
teknologi, peperangan dll.
Wartawan perlu mahir menangani isu kesetiaan /
prinsip-prinsip – di peringkat global / nasional.
Contoh: Cable News Network (CNN), Peter Arnett
ketika Perang Teluk.
Tanggungjawab dan Akauntabiliti



Konsep dunia tanpa sempadan dan “penerbitan
global” hanya akan memberi makna sekiranya
mempunyai nilai-nilai kemanusiaan – bukan
sekadar kemajuan teknologi semata-mata.
Dunia kini tiada sempadan maklumat. Setiap
individu bebas mendptkan apa jua maklumat.
Setiap individu punyai kuasa yg besar dlm
membuat pilihan, membuat keputusan dan
sebagainya – bukan lagi ahli-ahli politik dan
individu tertentu sahaja.
Sensitiviti dan Inisiatif
Yang Tinggi




Wartawan perlu bersedia menghadapi impak
maksimum
globalisasi
terhadap
nilai-nilai
masyarakatnya.
Pendekatan pemberitaan juga perlu lebih peka dgn
pertembungan nilai budaya ini.
Kewartawanan
masa
depan
juga
sukar
menjangkakan sesuatu yg universal – khususnya
yang melibatkan sensitiviti masyarakat dunia.
Contoh: PORNOGRAFI - kebanyakan negara
mengharamkan; sesetengah membenarkannya.
Peringatan!


Menjadi wartawan global / maya tidak
seharusnya menjadikan wartawan /
pengamal media itu menjadi warganegara
global / maya.
Beliau tetap menjadi warganegara kepada
sesebuah negara dunia – sekaligus tertakluk
kpd perlembagaan negara berkenaan.
Kesimpulan Unit 11
Antara Pendekatan Malaysia Hadapi Cabaran



Anjakan Paradigma

Kita perlukan “kanta baru” dan kita perlu buang “kanta
lama” - Kenichi Ohmae [The Borderless World, 1990].
Bandaraya Masa Depan - MSC.
Akta Telekomunikasi & Multimedia (1997)

Bertujuan melindungi perniagaan multimedia dan seluruh
bidang perniagaan dan pengurusannya.

Diimplementasikan seiring undang2 siber lain: Antaranya
Undang-undang Siber Harta Intelektual Multimedia,
Undang2 Siber Jenayah Komputer, dan Undang-undang
Siber Kerajaan Elektronik.