Notes on Imperialism
Restructuring Europe
After the defeat of Napoleon and the end of the era of French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars in
1815, the major European powers tried to restore peace by strengthening conservative
traditional monarchies, which were inconsistent with the revolution ideas that had since been
unleashed.
The Congress of Vienna
The meeting of European powers to settle the peace of Europe from Sept 1814 to June
1815.
Participants
The Austrian foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich was the architect of
the Congress of Vienna. He was generally supported by the other leaders, including
Alexander I of Russia, King Frederick William III of Prussia, Charles-Maurice de
Talleyrand of France, and British foreign secretary Viscount Castlereagh.
Metternich was adamantly opposed to revolutionary ideas and had the following
goals for the conference:
1. Compensate the victors
2. Restore balance of power to ensure peace
3. Legitimacy (i.e. restoring governments that had ruled before Napoleon and the
Revolution)
Restoring Europe
The Congress made the following changes to European territories in order to restore
peace and stability to Europe:
Restored French boundaries of 1792 (taking all territories gained in Rev.
wars)
Added buffer territories to French neighbors including the Netherlands
(gained Belgium), Prussia (along the Rhine)
German states organized into a loose German Confederation
Restored Swiss independence – the country declared itself forever neutral
Restored the monarchs of Portugal, Spain, Sardinia, and Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies
Austria gained territorial control over much of northern Italy (Lombardy,
Venetia, Illyria and the Tirol)
1
Compromise
The Congress could not agree on the fate of Poland, which Russia aimed to annex
for itself. As a compromise, the Duchy of Warsaw was divided between Prussia and
Russia. However the other three states (Britain, Austria and France) agreed in a
secret alliance to oppose any aggression by either Russia or Prussia.
The Concert of Europe
The success of the Congress of Vienna was based on compromise and the arrangements by
the great powers established to enforce the terms of the congress.
In September 1815, Czar Alexander I of Russia called on his fellow monarchs to join
him in a holy alliance, pledging to rule as Christian princes, hoping that it would
prove to be a vehicle for maintaining international peace. Members were
committed to helping each other put down any internal rebellion or revolution.
Most states (with the exception of Britain the Papal States and the Ottoman
Empire) joined the Holy Alliance
Shortly afterwards Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, known as the Quadruple
Alliance, agreed to meet regularly to maintain peace and discuss common interests
The goals of this system became known as the Concert of Europe as designed by none other
than Prince Metternich – hoping to combat the spread of revolutionary ideas and maintain
peace through European cooperation and a return to enlightened despotism.
Unification in Italy and Germany
Despite the efforts of the Congress of Vienna, Europe was unable to return to the old order. A
growing sense of nationalism and liberalism encourage many Europeans, especially the Italian and
German peoples, to see the nation-state as the only way to guarantee individual liberties and
national prosperity.
The Growth of Italian Nationalism
Since Roman times, Italy had been divided into various states with different governments,
dialects, economies and customs. Briefly united by Napoleon, nationalist sentiment grew
after the Congress of Vienna sought to divide Italy once again, and encourage Austrian
control over several states.
Early Nationalist Movements
2
Authors used their pen to call Italians to join together and liberate Italy from
foreign rule. The nationalist movement became known as the Risorgimento or
“resurgence”.
In order to promote the cause, many secret societies formed.
The Carbonari or “charcoal-burners” plotted to overthrow the
Austrians
The popular writers Giuseppe Mazzini, once exiled for outspoken nationalism,
formed the Young Italy Movement in 1831. Threatened by this movement,
Austria declared that members of the movement could be executed if caught.
Revolution in Italy
Many Italian States hesitated or opposed unification because it would mean giving
up their individual power to one central government. In 1848, after Italian
nationalists revolted across the peninsula, only Sardinia gained and maintained its
independence.
Italian Unification
Italian nationals were unable to agree on how to achieve national unity – as a federation of
states under the pope, a republic, or a constitutional monarchy.
Cavour and Sardinia
Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, the prime minister of Sardinia, believed that
political and economic resurrection were tied. Therefore he promoted economic
growth through the funding of railroad construction, industrial encouragement, and
by negotiating free-trade agreements.
He also strengthened the Sardinian army, dreaming of a kingdom strong enough to
drive the Austrians out of Italy. To gain France as an ally against Austria, he
transferred the provinces of Savoy and Nice to France in 1860.
Garibaldi and the Red Shirts
Giuseppe Garibaldi, a member of Mazzini’s Young Italy movement returned from
exile in 1859 to lead part of the Sardinian army against Austria. The were able to
wrest Lombardy from the Austrians
Garibaldi’s followers were known as the Red Shirts because of their red
uniforms. They went on to aid Sicily as guerrilla fighters against the
Bourbon monarchy, while Cavour conquered central Italy.
The Kingdom of Italy
3
The newly conquered and united Italian territories, under the control of King Victor
Emmanuel II of Sardinia agreed to unification in 1861. The only territories that
did not join were Venetia (controlled by Austria) and the Papal States (French
troops defended the pope). The Italians were able to gain Venetia by siding with
Prussia in its 1866 war against Austria, and the Papal States were added when a
war between France and Prussia in 1870 forced the French troops to withdraw.
Calls for German Unity
Nationalism in Germany had been supported by Napoleon who first formed the
Confederation of German States. The Congress of Vienna retained the German
Confederation, granting Prussia territory that would make it the dominant power in the
Confederation.
The Zollverein
High Tariffs between states impeded the unity of the German economy. So in 1818
the Prussian landed aristocrats (junkers) persuaded the Prussian king to abolish all
tariffs by establishing the Zollverein, or customs union.
German Liberalism
German liberals sought German unity that would promote individual rights and
liberal reforms (whether through a republic or constitutional monarchy). Their
chance came in 1848, as revolution swept across Europe and Metternich was ousted
in Vienna. King Frederick William of Prussia gave into nationalist demands to unite
Prussia and Germany, although he continued to assert strong central power.
Bismarck and Prussia
In 1862, King William I of Prussia, appointed junker and conservative politician
Otto von Bismarck as the head of the Prussian cabinet.
Bismarck practiced realpolitik or “realistic politics”, pursuing policies based
on Prussian interests rather than liberal ideas. He believed it was Prussia’s
destiny to lead the German people to unification.
When the parliament refused to grant him money for military expeditions he
dismissed the assembly and collected taxes anyway. He built up the army
into a powerful war machine that could forcibly unite Germany under
Prussia.
The Unification of Germany
4
Through war and diplomacy, “blood and iron”, Bismarck united the German states into an
empire under the king of Prussia.
Bismarck’s two main obstacles to growth were Austria’s position of leadership within
the German Confederation and influence over the southern German states.
During the Seven Weeks War of 1866, Prussia allied itself with Italy in order
to provoke a war with Austria. The superior Prussia army was able to defeat
the Austrians in only seven weeks, dissolve the German Confederation and
annex all but three southern states.
The Franco-Prussian war of 1870 allowed Bismarck to persuade the
southern German states to join Prussia against the French. The Prussia
victory led to the loss of the Alsace-Lorraine territory by France and a huge
damages settlement.
On January 18, 1871, at the palace of Versailles, the representatives of all the
German states proclaimed King William I of Prussia emperor, or Kaiser, of the
German Empire. Bismarck was named his chancellor.
Motives of Modern Imperialism
Imperialism: the policy of extending a nation’s authority by territorial acquisition or by the
establishment of economic and political hegemony over other nations.
Imperialism (the practice of dominating others through the establishment of great empires) has
existed throughout history. During the 1800s, the technological advantages of the Industrial
Revolution, as well as the rise of nationalism, allowed the Western world to commit itself to
successful territorial expansion that would spread their empires across the globe.
The advantages of industrialization (such as science, technology, industry, agriculture,
transportation, communication and military) allowed the Western nations to overwhelm
peoples who generally outnumbered them. Nationalism allowed states to command the
loyalty, service and resources of their inhabitants. Their confidence and cultural arrogance
further fostered this expansionist mood.
Building New Empires
Between 1870 and 1914 the nations of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and
the United States engaged in formal empire-building, eventually controlling most of the
world with their vast colonial holdings.
Some European powers exercised their rule through settlement colonies in which
large numbers of Europeans occupied the land (ex: Australia, Algeria, South Africa).
5
Dependent Colonies, on the other hand, were those in which European imperial
officials ruled over non-European peoples
The Rest of the world war controlled through Spheres of Influence, or territories in
which the interest of a single outside nation were dominant.
The “new” imperialism
The “new” imperialism was not very different from old imperialism, that had been
practiced since the late 1400s. Consistent motives included economic, political,
strategic, religious and humanitarian. However, imperial expansion was intensified
during the 1800s by the rise of nationalism and the spread of the Industrial
Revolution.
Underlying motives were government concerns for national security and
people’s sense of national pride and identity.
During this time, after 1870, Europeans spread their control over 10million
square miles and 150 million people (a fifth of the world’s land area and a
tenth of its population)
National Competition and Imperialism
Imperialism was spurred by the wave of nationalism that spread through Europe in
the 1800s, that had caused the emergence of new German and Italian states (realigning the balance of power in Europe). This caused growing tensions between
nation-states that would be played out all over the world.
After the loss of French territory in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck
encouraged France to make up for their losses by expanding their influence in
Africa (also thus diverting their attention and desire for revenge in Europe)
Modern industrial warfare depended on new technologies such as railroads,
repeating rifles and improved artillery. The growth of Industrialization to
encourage military growth required access to raw materials and markets. Thus
European competition for empires was fueled by the desire to wage modern
industrial warfare.
Free trade and Empire
Each country was interested in developing their own industrial capacity, therefore
they shut themselves and their markets off from other countries – a policy known
as protectionism. The rise of protectionism and new imperialism represented a
return to old mercantilist principles.
6
Technology and Empire
During the 1850s, new advances in shipbuilding allowed Europeans to travel safely
anywhere in the world. Steamships replaced sailing ships. However the need for coal led
to a need for fueling stations – bases where ships could be re-supplied with coal.
New medicines allowed Europeans to penetrate areas full of unfamiliar diseases.
Humanitarian and Cultural Imperialism
Westerners tended to believe that their own civilization (shaped by Christian values and
Enlightenment rationalism) was the best in the world – the culmination of human
achievement and development.
Europeans became concerned with the moral consequences of imperialism. The
presence of liberal democracy and human rights at home was inconsistent with the
practice of imperialism abroad. Therefore, many adopted the moralist tone of
missionaries in describing and advocating imperialism.
Imperialism did not lead solely to greater prosperity or good fortune. The overwhelming outcome
was competition and hostility among the powers of Europe which would ultimately lead to the
Great War.
Hanes, et al. World History: Continuity and Change [Holt, Rinehart and Winston: Austin, 1999] pages 536545, 566-678.
Craig, Graham, Kagan, Azment, Turner. The Heritage of World Civilizations. Fifth Edition. Combined
Volume. [Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2000] pages920-929.
7
Lecture Notes: On Imperialism
What is Imperialism:
i.
the policy of extending a nation’s authority by territorial acquisition or by the
establishment of economic and political hegemony over other nations.
ii.
the practice of dominating others through the establishment of great empires
This has existed throughout history.
During the 1800s, the technological advantages of the Industrial Revolution, as well as
the rise of nationalism, allowed the Western world to commit itself to successful
territorial expansion that would spread their empires across the globe.
The advantages of industrialization (such as science, technology, industry,
agriculture, transportation, communication and military) allowed the Western
nations to overwhelm peoples who generally outnumbered them.
Nationalism allowed states to command the loyalty, service and resources of their
inhabitants.
Consider the influence of Nationalism on Europe in the 1800s:
After the defeat of Napoleon and the end of the era of French Revolution and Napoleonic
Wars in 1815, the major European powers tried to restore peace by strengthening
conservative traditional monarchies, which were inconsistent with the revolution ideas
that had since been unleashed.
The goals of the Congress of Vienna, designed by none other than Prince
Metternich hoped to combat the spread of revolutionary ideas and maintain peace
through European cooperation and a return to enlightened despotism.
8
Despite the efforts of the Congress of Vienna, Europe was unable to return to the
old order. A growing sense of nationalism and liberalism encourage many
Europeans, especially the Italian and German peoples, to see the nation-state as
the only way to guarantee individual liberties and national prosperity.
Case 1: German Unification
Nationalism in Germany had been supported by Napoleon who first formed the
Confederation of German States. The Congress of Vienna retained the German
Confederation, granting Prussia territory that would make it the dominant power in the
Confederation. Prussia was not satisfied by being merely a player in the Confederation,
but desired complete control of the German state. Which they achieved under Bismarck
Bismarck:
In 1862, King William I of Prussia, appointed junker and conservative
politician Otto von Bismarck as the head of the Prussian cabinet. He believed
it was Prussia’s destiny to lead the German people to unification.
When the parliament refused to grant him money for military
expeditions he dismissed the assembly and collected taxes anyway. He
built up the army into a powerful war machine that could forcibly
unite Germany under Prussia.
Through war and diplomacy, “blood and iron”, Bismarck united the German states
into an empire under the king of Prussia.
Bismarck’s two main obstacles to growth were Austria’s position of
leadership within the German Confederation and influence over the southern
German states.
During the Seven Weeks War of 1866, Prussia allied itself with Italy
in order to provoke a war with Austria. The superior Prussia army
was able to defeat the Austrians in only seven weeks, dissolve the
German Confederation and annex all but three southern states.
The Franco-Prussian war of 1870 allowed Bismarck to persuade the
southern German states to join Prussia against the French. The
Prussia victory led to the loss of the Alsace-Lorraine territory by
France and a huge damages settlement.
9
On January 18, 1871, at the palace of Versailles, the representatives of all the
German states proclaimed King William I of Prussia emperor, or Kaiser, of the
German Empire. Bismarck was named his chancellor.
Case 1: Italian Unification
Since Roman times, Italy had been divided into various states with different
governments, dialects, economies and customs. Briefly united by Napoleon, nationalist
sentiment grew after the Congress of Vienna sought to divide Italy once again, and
encourage Austrian control over several states.
Mazzini: the heart
The popular writers Giuseppe Mazzini, once exiled for outspoken nationalism,
formed the Young Italy Movement in 1831. Threatened by this movement,
Austria declared that members of the movement could be executed if
caught.
Cavour: the brain
Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, the prime minister of Sardinia, believed that
political and economic resurrection were tied. Therefore he promoted
economic growth through the funding of railroad construction, industrial
encouragement, and by negotiating free-trade agreements.
He also strengthened the Sardinian army, dreaming of a kingdom strong
enough to drive the Austrians out of Italy. To gain France as an ally against
Austria, he transferred the provinces of Savoy and Nice to France in 1860.
Garibaldi: the sword
Giuseppe Garibaldi, a member of Mazzini’s Young Italy movement returned
from exile in 1859 to lead part of the Sardinian army against Austria. The
were able to wrest Lombardy from the Austrians
Garibaldi’s followers were known as the Red Shirts because of their
red uniforms. They went on to aid Sicily as guerrilla fighters against
the Bourbon monarchy, while Cavour conquered central Italy.
10
The newly conquered and united Italian territories, under the control of King Victor
Emmanuel II of Sardinia agreed to unification in 1861. The only territories that did not
join were Venetia (controlled by Austria) and the Papal States (French troops defended
the pope). The Italians were able to gain Venetia by siding with Prussia in its 1866 war
against Austria, and the Papal States were added when a war between France and
Prussia in 1870 forced the French troops to withdraw.
The “new” imperialism
The “new” imperialism was not very different from old imperialism, that had been
practiced since the late 1400s. Consistent motives included economic, political, strategic,
religious and humanitarian. However, imperial expansion was intensified during the
1800s by the rise of nationalism and the spread of the Industrial Revolution.
Underlying motives were government concerns for national security and people’s
sense of national pride and identity.
During this time, after 1870, Europeans spread their control over 10million
square miles and 150 million people (a fifth of the world’s land area and a tenth
of its population)
Styles of Imperialism:
Some European powers exercised their rule through settlement colonies in which
large numbers of Europeans occupied the land (ex: Australia, Algeria, South
Africa).
Dependent Colonies, on the other hand, were those in which European imperial
officials ruled over non-European peoples
The Rest of the world war controlled through Spheres of Influence, or territories in
which the interest of a single outside nation were dominant.
Motives for Imperialsim
a. National Competition
11
Imperialism was spurred by the wave of nationalism that spread through Europe
in the 1800s, that had caused the emergence of new German and Italian states
(re-aligning the balance of power in Europe). This caused growing tensions
between nation-states that would be played out all over the world.
After the loss of French territory in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck
encouraged France to make up for their losses by expanding their influence
in Africa (also thus diverting their attention and desire for revenge in
Europe)
Modern industrial warfare depended on new technologies such as railroads,
repeating rifles and improved artillery. The growth of Industrialization to
encourage military growth required access to raw materials and markets. Thus
European competition for empires was fueled by the desire to wage modern
industrial warfare.
b. Free trade and Empire
Each country was interested in developing their own industrial capacity, therefore
they shut themselves and their markets off from other countries – a policy known
as protectionism. The rise of protectionism and new imperialism represented a
return to old mercantilist principles.
Technology and Empire
During the 1850s, new advances in shipbuilding allowed Europeans to travel safely
anywhere in the world. Steamships replaced sailing ships. However the need for
coal led to a need for fueling stations – bases where ships could be re-supplied
with coal.
New medicines allowed Europeans to penetrate areas full of unfamiliar diseases.
c. Humanitarian and Cultural Imperialism
Westerners tended to believe that their own civilization (shaped by Christian values
and Enlightenment rationalism) was the best in the world – the culmination of
human achievement and development.
12
Europeans became concerned with the moral consequences of imperialism.
The presence of liberal democracy and human rights at home was
inconsistent with the practice of imperialism abroad. Therefore, many
adopted the moralist tone of missionaries in describing and advocating
imperialism.
13