Hobongan Discourse Markers:
Lexical Items As Indications of
Pragmatic Priority
Marla Perkins, Ph.D. | marla.perkins@nau.edu
Introduction to Hobongan
• Austronesian language
• Approximately 2000 speakers
• Along river system on the
island of Borneo, Indonesian
side
Introduction to this Project
• Already noted that one discourse marker functions as focus marker (Perkins, 2013): [ʤoɁ]
• Evidence for that exists throughout the language
• Next question: In a language that has a significant system of discourse markers, are there
cues toward the focal dominance of [ʤoɁ] available within that system?
• Answer: Yes—the other discourse markers are limited in their uses, but [ʤoɁ] has the most
possibilities
• (Note: the examples are given in the Hobongan orthography; if material is given in brackets,
it’s phonetic transcription.)
• Rachel Searcy is a missionary who works among the Hobongan on a translation of the
Bible; the examples are primarily from her work, and the analyses are mine.
Case for Discourse Marking
• They are syntactically flexible, usually occurring immediately prior to the
word, phrase, or clause that is marked.
• They link various levels of discourse.
• Many of them indicate units of discourse.
• They should not be considered exclusively syntactic because the levels of
connections can extend beyond the sentential level.
Discourse Markers for Time, I
Simultaneity
•
•
•
Doreou
•
Pas ko nong
ku pano muri’ Hopungoi doreou ngota asu ku.
I traveled to go up Hopungoi creek while calling to my dogs.
•
exactly when
•
Aong bare’ jo’ ho nutu’ ko a nosakup ho pas ko nong ho
noon ho jo’ ho porajo na’a.
•
Other times *focus* it bites so one pulls on it exactly when it
swallows it jo’ it then gets caught.
Priority—Recent
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
De/Deen:
• In current conversation it refers to immediate past.
A nata’ mori ulo’ silop ho de ture a.
One cuts discards the end of the bent-over-part of it that one did
before.
• In narrative discourse it refers to some previous
occurrence within the framework of the story.
Ho a mo’ nyian sangot daan kita’ ho de ko a ngokom ho jo’ ho buru
It went and wasn’t like it had been earlier so [when] one touched it jo’ it
disintegrated.
• In narrative and other discourse types it can also refer to
something that the speaker has already mentioned earlier
in his narrative.
kai buho mo’ humi’ ho a ko’ung pare nan deen.
we went home and threshed it to get those rice grains *mentioned
before.*
Discourse Markers for Time, II
Priority: Recent
Priority: Recent or Distant
•
•
Lo/Loon:
•
intermediate past (more distant than de but not as distant
as longaam)
Ne:
•
previous occurrence, may be recent or distant
•
•
Ku kisa nong kai loon be sa tapun boon.
•
Tuhu’an na ne moe.
I’ll tell about [when] we a while back went to the top of the rapids.
•
The year that was a while back before.
•
Moe:
•
•
•
something that occurs before something else in the
framework of the story
Ngeke ho moe lua jo’ kai musok ho.
Pounded it first later and we sorted it.
Discourse Markers for Time, III
Distant Past
Sequence-after-Completion
• Longaam:
• distant past
• Hibo so longaam lewat humo’…
• When he a long time ago really drank [alcohol] a
• Baru’/baru’mono:
lot…
• Di:
• very distant past but mostly used by the older
generation referring to when they were young (no
examples available yet)
• something that is only done after
something else is finished
• Cop kotom ketou ure mo’ lua jo’ baru’ mono ketou
diri’ ngoboresi hiro pare nan cian
• Until our harvest after a while was completed jo’ only
then we cleaned the rice well
Discourse Markers for Time, IV
Passage of Time--Unspecified
Sequence
• Ure/ure mo’
• Lua:
• Lua jo’ kai ngohi ho
• Later and we scrape it off the stalks
• indicates passage/extension of time
• Kai rapat ure.
• We had a meeting for a while.
• Cop kotom ketou ure mo’ lua.
• Until our harvest after a while was
completed.
• Ngolosu/losu
• Losu ko kira-kira pu menit jo’ ku cohing doromon ho
ba’an heo asu ku
• A little later about 10 minutes jo’ I heard just a faint
sound the sound of my dogs. (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Time, V
Future: in
Narrative/Conversation
•
Na’a:
•
in the future, either in current conversation or in
the context of the story
•
“Na’a po’o ku moe ure nyam ko kom nyua deti ho.”
•
“Later I’ll be the first to give a riddle so you (pl) will find the
meaning of it.”
Future: Distant
• Kohoco na’ nan
• distant time later
• Ure jo’ sa kohoco na’ nan jo’ hamun
Hamang pano ure lari so.
• Later and after a long time jo’ father-ofHamang went to set live traps.
Discourse Markers for Aspect, I
Completed Aspect
Completed Aspect
•
Deen:
•
ketou deen oni’ suang lagi’.
•
we had already gotten a lot again.
• Lua:
• kopi nan deen hoco lua ture hiro kenak
• that coffee was already a long time finished stirred by
•
Porajo ku deen mang so kita’ nan jo’ ku nokocop
•
Then I already saw her like that jo’ I stood (note the use of
[ʤoɁ])
them.
• Mono:
• Jo’ hiro lua mo’ ure ju’ hiro ba’an mono.
• Jo’ they later and just started playing already. (note the
use of [ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Aspect, II
Repetition
Repetition
• Lua + repetition of action:
• Lapon + repetition of action:
• Lapon ko hiro asu ku lua masa’ aut jo’ ku nosakup
• recapitulating time
• Lua nyika jo’ kai nyilap kosingom ho
• After cooking it jo’ we winnow to cool it. (note the
pu’urip tempel.
• After my dogs had already gotten in the boat jo’ I
pulled to start the motor.
use of [ʤoɁ])
• Lapon ho lua jo’ so ba’e naka buho.
• After it was done jo’ he went down to go home.
(note the uses of [ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Aspect, III
Continuation
• repetition of action + ure (indicates
action that continues for a period of
time)
• Ngotom ure ko teat kai pono jo’ kai ce niti
pa’asa’ ho nong teat lomohon.
• Continued harvesting so our baskets were
full jo’ we went across to pour to put it in
the lomohon baskets. (note the use of
[ʤoɁ])
Continuation until Completion
• Repetition of action + mono
(completed aspect):
• Jadi kai be muri’ majo hiro bon…Jadi
be mono kai mo’ labi’ nong lopo.
• So we went up to go up to go past the
rapids…So went up already we and
arrived at the shelter. (note the use of
[ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Aspect, IV
Resultative
Iterative
• Porajo
•
•
•
immediately following
• “jo’ porajo lua beat”
• “jo’ then it’s just all done.” (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
• Dajo
• Dajo buho itet ho
• Then went home taking it.
Na komo’ nan (and other similar phrases):
cyclical
•
•
Na komo’ na o do nyu’e jo’ ho nyian pu’un ni tohotong.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lagi’
Like that and like that they answered but there weren’t any
that were right.
Lua nan jo’ kai ngotom lagi’.
After that jo’ we harvested again.
Baan ko
Baan ko ku ure nyam kan hiro.
Again I told a riddle for them.
Discourse Markers for Aspect, V
Inceptive
• Tuhi
• first (in a sequence)
• Jadi ni tuhi jo’ kai pano nyua ho sa
tu’an.
• So the first thing is we go to find it to
the jungle. (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
Inchoative
• Na’
• from (starting point)
• Ketou lua mo’ ngotom na’ jam dua’
belas lua mo’ cop jam satu.
• We later and harvested from 12:00
and until 1:00.
Discourse Markers for Aspect, VI
Terminative/Cessative
• Cop
• End point (temporal)/until
• Lua jo’ kai nyika ho cop ho ure mo’
to’o pas sika.
• Later and we fry it until it becomes the
right doneness. (note the use of
[ʤoɁ])
Terminative/Cessative
• Toron
• Conclusion/resolution
• Lapon a manyam ho jo’ toron
• After one weaves it jo’ [that is] the
end. (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Logical Argument, I
Means/Purpose
•
Reason
•
Na’an:
•
means/purpose
•
Lua nan jo’ kai kisa’ cihu pi’ang lusong na’an ho mo’otom.
•
After that jo’ we rub beeswax with soot so that it will be
black. (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
•
•
•
•
•
Ko (so, resulting):
• reason/result/so/resulting
Hana oni’ sapat ni nyian po’o lua ko Kang Lin neho, “Totou
min ho sama ko,” keo so na
There was a little hill that wasn’t finished, so Aunt Lin said,
“Let’s all do it together,” she said.
Pahaban (therefore, as a result):
• therefore/as a result
Sainan ho nyom nyului beong nukung mo’ mongot ku
pahaban lok ko paka duha’ ku pua’.
Even then it kept working its way around to try to hit [me]
and bite me, so (as a result) with a snapping sound the shaft
of my spear broke.
Discourse Markers for Logical Argument, II
Reason
Reason
• Porajo:
• Jadi:
• immediately after; result (some speakers)
• Porajo hitou ni de ebang na’ sunge ce
morasa deen lewat daba mo’ porajo ngota
ketou ce.
• reason/result
• hana dino ni beong ure hiro jadi hiro
beong ngolawan pi’ang arino
• there is someone who wants to attack
them so they want to fight back against
that person
• After that the ones who were near the
creek realized we were widely spread apart
and therefore called us to come over.
Discourse Markers for Logical Argument, III
Reason
• Ture
• result/reason
• Ure jo’ kita’ sa manu’ nen teat Kang Lin ture ho
molewat taban da’un ture so nyian mono sempat mori
ho.
• After a while jo’ like a bird’s nest [was] Aunt Lin’s
basket because it [the rice] was [put in]
with the
leaves because she no longer had time to throw it [the
leaves] away. (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
Avoidance of Negative
Consequence
• Tao/ kotao (afraid):
• Fear of negative consequences
• Ngororong hiro ngotop ko ho teo jo’ hiro puro ho
ba’an. Tao ho kotolamo mo’ lewat nana nong a
tupo ho.
• [When they] estimate they can bite it so it
crumbles jo’ they take it out [of the water.] for
fear it will get too wet and clump/stick together
when they pound it. (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Logical Argument, IV
Grounds/Exhortation
Adequacy
• Na’an:
• asal/tukon
• exhortation/grounds
• “Totou min ho sama ko,” keo so na, “na’an totou lua
mo’ tinggal lua mo’ a ho na’ abeng na’ itup,” keo so.
• “Let’s all do it together,” she said, “so that we’ll after
that just have to get the part that’s on the other side,”
she said.
•
good enough
• “Jo’ make ba’an,” keo ku, “asal totou ai’ buho
hitou moe.”
• “*Jo’ it’s up to you,” I said, “as long as we don’t
leave them first.” (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
• “Tukon totou be mori nan,” keo so.
• “As long as we go up to finish that,” she said.
Discourse Markers for Logical Argument, V
Concession/Counterexpectation
• To’o
• concession/counter-expectation
• to'o jo' mo'oco o duo
• as it turns out they are very far apart
Concession/Counterexpectation
• Ho komo’/komo’
• “Kang Lin komo’ ngola’it ku,” keo ku, “jo’ ku humo’
kopi boret.”
• “Even if Aunt Lin yells at me,” I said, “jo’ I’m going to
drink my coffee really quick [first.]” (note the use of
[ʤoɁ])
• “So komo’ ngobo ku,” keo so na soon so, “jo’ ku saja’
soon ko nen.”
• “Even if she kills me,” said the one her was her husband,
“jo’ I’ll still marry you.” (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Logical Argument, VI
Counterfactuals
Counterfactuals
• Tapi
• Baru’ mono kai ure ni tobori. Tapi ni pu’ung tuhi jo’
• Ho mono
mo’otom mo’ pute.
• Only after that we make the red. But the first is the
black and white. (note the use of [ʤoɁ])
• Katun:
• “Na ne katun su’e ho. Deen kai sala’,” keo hiro.
• “That as it turns out was the answer. We were
wrong,” they said.
• “Ho hana. Ho mono ku nyake ma’af,” keo ku,
“ku nyian halop kan ho icam.”
• “It’s here. But I apologize,” I said, “I can’t give
it to be borrowed.”
Discourse Markers for Units of Discourse
Paragraph
Paragraph
• Jadi
• indicates a paragraph break
• [previous paragraph] Kai itet aut nanjak hiro
• Lua nan
• after that/frequently indicates a
bon nan. {new paragraph} Jadi be mono kai
mo’ labi’ nong lopo.
• [previous paragraph] We took the boat climbed
up through those rapids. {new paragraph} So
go up already we and arrived at the shelter.
paragraph break
• [previous paragraph] …mo’ a olok mo’ duha’
ku. [new paragraph] Lua nan jo’ taka ko ku mo’
nota asu…
• [previous paragraph] …and got my machete
and my spear. [new paragraph] After that jo’
going down I and called the dogs. (note the use
of [ʤoɁ])
Discourse Markers for Information
Management, I
Given
Given
•
•
Na
•
already mentioned
•
•
Tenga ku na neho ko sorit mosut…
•
De/deen:
While I *earlier mention* was talking, the wind blew…
•
kai buho mo’ humi’ ho a ko’ung pare nan deen.
•
we went home and threshed it to get those rice grains
*mentioned before.*
•
•
ku nyua durum asu ku deen
I looked for my dogs *mentioned before*
Nan/nen
•
already mentioned/inferable
•
…hibo so nan lua ngoni’ nan
•
…when she had already given birth that (*already
mentioned*)
•
…tomaga ho na kita’ silu boan nen
•
…bronze which is like the color of gold *as you know*
Discourse Markers for Information
Management, II
New
• moko’
• new information or term; used often for
terms from Indonesian
• Hiro paharang mo’ ngahaket a lusong moko’
• They heat to dry [it] and scrape to get soot *new
word*
• …nyi’ ho, nyi’ monatap ho na moko’ nong luang
hoang ho ba’e
• …the fat, the monatap fat which is *new concept*
inside its intestinal cavity
• Note that [ʤoɁ] is not used with
information management markers.
[ʤoɁ], I
For Reason
• Paharang ho nong api mo’ itet
nyamu mo’ ngasut jo’ duhi ho
mo’ori.
• Heat it in the fire and use cloth and
rub so the thorns come off.
Condition/Response
• Condition / response
• Kalou + jo’:
• kalou nong kobian kai jo’ kai to’o
bokakop bobagi ho
• If in our family jo’ we can scoop to
divide it.
[ʤoɁ], II
Hypothetical
condition/response
• Mo’ hana + jo’
• Jadi kalou kita’ doruo Hama’ mo’
Hina’ beong borion ho na’a lua mo’
nyian pobara jo’ oni’ sala’.
• So if for example Mom and Dad
wanted to sell it later and didn’t tell
[him] jo’ [it would be] wrong.
Condition/response
• Eo ko (yes *manner*) + jo’:
• Eo ko ho nakat jo’ ho pano nyoria bun
kanon ni lua maram, kobo.
• Yes it [may] climb up [out of the water] if
it travels to follow the smell of an animal
that is already rotten, dead.
[ʤoɁ], III
Counterfactual
•
Lua uhat o ku jo’ ngotom ba’an.
•
Completely out of energy I was but I just [kept] harvesting.
Coordination (not a discourse use)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
objects (nouns & noun phrases):
Kai daang do’ora pano nabung a hiro pare jo’ kiu ho.
We women went to collect to get the rice and the wood.
people (noun phrases, names):
Hiro daang laki jo’ hiro daang tahakan na nen.
The men and the old people it was.
actions:
Polelu doruo pobara jo’ noco so.
Need to they tell and ask him.
clauses:
Hiro hitung koring a, kube pu hiro ni ngotom jo’ kube pu hiro ni nong
ira jo’ kube hiro ni nong moligai.
They count the people, how many are they which are harvesting and
how many are they which are down at the bottom [of the hill] and how
many are they which are on the threshing platform.
[ʤoɁ], IV
Initial Introduction of
Character: Information
management
• Hitou Dina jo’ hitou mibe.
• They Dina jo’ they walked along the
bank.
• Hiro daang laki jo’ hiro ngeha ure ju’
hiro.
• They men jo’ they a lot played games.
Changing Focus among
Characters
• …Mo’ daru o bu’ ho, keo hiro.
Diri’ ku jo’ nyian ku mang ho.
• …And its hair was really long, they
said. *Emphasis* me jo’ I didn’t
see it.
Analysis of [ʤoɁ]
• Discourse marker usually, with a syntactic option (coordination)
• Semantics: focus, most often for spatial/locational information (Perkins, 2013):
•
•
•
•
•
HERE!/THERE!
Often used in addition to other discourse markers, but not information-management
markers
Suggestion 1: flexibility and co-use with other discourse markers allow it to be focal
Suggestion 2: lack of co-use with information management suggests it is also an
information-management marker: given/new already handled, so [ʤoɁ] indicates the
current information
Current information priority is therefore spatial/locational in most cases.
This accords well with the cultural preference for organizing information in discourse and
life according to space/location.
References
•
Bril, Isabelle. 2007. “Coordination, information hierarchy, and subordination in some Austronesian languages.” Frankfurter
Afrikanistishe Blätter (Rüdiger Köppe Verlag) 19: 213-243.
•
Hsieh, Fuhui, and Michael Tanagkingsing. 2006. “The empty root in Cebuano and Kavala: A counterexample to grammaticalization”.
Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Palawan: Linguistic Society of the Philippines/ SIL International. 17-20.
•
Huang, Shuanfan, and Michael Tanangkingsing. 2005. “Reference to motion events in six western Austronesian languages: Toward a
semantic typology.” Oceanic Linguistics 44(2): 307-340. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3623343.
•
Klamer, Margaretha Anna Flora. 2002. “Typical features of Austronesian languages in central/eastern Indonesia.” Oceanic
Linguistics 41 (2): 363-383.
•
Massam, Diane, Donna Starks, and Ofania Ikiua. 2006. “On the edge of grammar: Discourse particles in Niuean.” Oceanic
Linguistics 45 (1): 191-205. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4499952.
•
Perkins, Marla. “Causality and its interactions: Culture, semantics, and pragmatics in Hobongan and English.” ATINER
Conference Paper Series. Athens: Athens Institute for Education and Research, 2013.
•
Schokkin, Dineke. 2014. “Discourse particles as an areal feature in the New Guinea region? Exploration in Paluai, an Austronesian
language of the Admiralities.” Journal of Pragmatics 62: 107-120.
•
Walrod, Michael. 2006. “The marker is the message: The influence of discourse markers and particles on textual meaning.”
Philippine Journal of Linguistics 37 (2): 100-119.
Questions/Comments