MIS 302F EXAM #2 STUDYGUIDE
Ch. 6: “Understanding Network Effects”
Network effects: key strategic asset; sometimes referred to as “Metcalfe’s Law” or
“Network Externalities”; when network effects are present, the value of a product or
service increases as its number of users grows.
-more users = more value
-network: refers to a common user base that is able to communicate and share with one another; Facebook users make
up a network
Products/Services subject to network effects: Apple products (iPhone),
Facebook, Excel, Microsoft Work, AOL IM, video game consoles (Xbox, PS3)
*Key Takeaway #1: Network effects are among the most powerful strategic resources that
can be created by technology-based innovation. Many category-dominating organizations
and technologies, including Microsoft, Apple, NASDAQ, eBay, Facebook, and Visa, owe their
success to network effects. Network effects are also behind the establishment of most
standards, including Blu-ray, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth
-Value derived from network effects comes from 3 sources:
1) exchange, 2) staying power, and 3) complementary benefits
Exchange: every product or service subject to network effects fosters some
kind of exchange; network becomes more valuable because its users can
potentially communicate with more people
Staying Power: networks w/ greater numbers of users suggest a stronger
staying power (long-term viability of a product/service); important for
consumers of technology products; users don’t want to buy product or sign
up for service that’s likely to go away
-concept of staying power directly related to switching costs: ( the
cost a consumer incurs when moving from one product to another; it
can involve actual money spent and/or investments in time, any data
loss, etc. )
- switching costs can strengthen value of network effects as a
strategic asset; the higher the value of user’s investment,
the more likely they’re to consider the staying power
- Total cost of ownership (TCO): an economic measure of
the full cost of owning a product (typically computer
hardware and/or software). TCO includes direct costs such
as purchase price, plus indirect costs such as training,
support, and maintenance; Microsoft has high TCO
Complementary Benefits: those products or services that add additional
value to the primary product or service that makes up a network; “how- to”
books, software add-ons, labor; Ex. are eBay books on auctioning, virtual
storefronts in Second Life, the tons of accountants that know Excel; the book
authors, Second Life partners, accountants invest time where they will reach
biggest market and get greatest benefit
Platforms: products and services that allow for the development and
integration of software products and other complementary goods;
encourage others to offer complementary goods; allowing firms to
contribute to your platform can be a brilliant strategy => those firms
will spend their time and money to enhance your offerings
-Ex.: Apple: all the products sold for it, cars, applications
*Key Takeaway #2: Products and services subject to network effects get their value from
exchange, perceived staying power, and complementary products and services. Tech firms
and services that gain the lead in these categories often dominate all rivals; Many firms
attempt to enhance their network effects by creating a platform for the development of
third-party products and services that enhance the primary offering
Structure of the network:
One-sided market: a market that derives most of its value from a single
class of users (ex. instant messaging; while there may be add-ons for the
most popular IM tools, they don’t influence most users’ choice of an IM
system; choose one IM took over another based on how many of your
contacts you can reach)
-Same-side exchange benefits:benefits derived by interaction
among members of a single class of participant (the exchange value
when increasing #s of IM users gain the ability to message each other)
Two-sided market: network markets comprised of two distinct categories
of participant, both of which that are needed to deliver value for the network
to work; Ex.: video game console owners & developers of video games (buy a
video game console w/ highest # of great games available; software developers write games based on ability to reach highest # of paying customers)
-Cross-side exchange benefit: when an increase in the number of
users on one side of the market (console owners) creates a rise in
the other side (software/game developers)
*Key Takeaway #3: In one-sided markets, users gain benefits from interacting w/ a similar
category of users (instant messaging, where everyone can send and receive messages to one
another) ; In two-sided markets, users gain benefits from interacting w/ a separate,
complementary class of users (video game industry console owners are attracted to
platforms w/ most games, while innovative developers are attracted to platforms that have
the most users)
How does competition in markets where network effects are present differ
from competition in traditional markets?
Network markets experience, early, fierce competition; the biggest networks
become even bigger; once a leader becomes clear, bandwagons form, and new
adopters favor leading product over rivals, tipping the market in favor of one
dominant firm or standard; winner-take-all/most (monopolistic tendencies, for
example Microsoft)
-monopoly: a market where there are many buyers but only one dominant
seller; the natural state of a market where network effects are present, is for
there to be one major player
-oligopoly: a market dominated by a small number of powerful sellers (for
example: “Big Four” record labels (Universal, Sony, EMI, Warner))
The best product or service doesn’t always win; PS2 dominated video console
market over original Xbox even though every review said Xbox was more technically
superior
Any product that is incompatible with the dominant network has to exceed the
value of the technical features of the leading play, plus the value of the
incumbent’s exchange, switching cost, and complementary product benefit;
incumbent must not be able to easily copy newcomer’s valuable new innovations
*Key Takeaway #4: Unseating firm that dominates w/ network effects can be extremely
difficult, especially if newcomer is not compatible w/ established leader. Newcomers will
find their technology will need to be so good that it must leapfrog not only the value of the
established firm’s tech, but also the perceived stability of the dominant firm, the exchange
benefits provided by existing user base, and benefits from any product complements
(difficult for rivals to unseat the dominance of Windows) ; Because of this, network effects
might limit # of rivals that challenge dominate firm. But the establishment of dominant
standard may actually encourage innovation w/I the stand, since firms producing
complements for leader have faith the leader will have staying power in the market
Strategies for Competing in Markets w/ Network Effects
-Move early (Yahoo! Auctions in Japan)
-subsidize product adoption (PayPal-gave users rebate as sign-up incentive to
encourage adoption of its new effort)
-leverage viral promotion (Skype; Facebook feeds)
-expand by redefining the market to bring in new categories of users (Nintendo
Wii) or through convergence (iPhone)
-form alliances and partnerships (NYCE vs. Citibank)
-establish distribution channels (Java with Netscape; Microsoft bundling Media
Player w/ Windows)
-seed the market w/ complements (Blu-ray; Nintendo)
-encourage the development of complementary goods- can include offering
resources, subsidies, reduced fees, market research, development kits,
venture capital (Facebook fbFund)
-maintain backward compatibility (Apple’s Mac OS X Rosetta translation software
for PowerPC to Intel)
Backward compatibility: the ability to take advantage of complementary
products
Developed for a prior generation of technology (Apple has same charger for
iPhone
3S, iPod, iPod touch, iPhone 4S)
-for rivals, be compatible with larger networks (Apple’s move to Intel; Live
Search Maps)
-for incumbents, constantly innovate to create a moving target and block rival
efforts to access your network (Apple’s efforts to block access to its own systems)
-for large firms with well-known followers, make preannouncements
(Microsoft)
Blue Ocean Strategy: (Wii Strategy) Idea- instead of competing in blood-red waters
where the sharks of highly competitive firms vie for every available scrap, firms
should seek the blue waters of uncontested, new market spaces
Congestion effects: when increasing numbers of users lower the value of a product
or service; sometimes a network effect attracts too many users and a service can be
so overwhelmed it becomes unusable. (ex. Twitter, Facebook users w/ too many
friends causes annoying news feeds, online game Ultima w/ not enough monsters to
fight or server power to handle the crush of fans)
Tipping Points: when network effects are present, markets may reach a tipping
point where network effects become so valuable that one winner emerges
(Microsoft won desktop operating system battle)
*Key Takeaway #5: Moving early matters in network markets- firms that move early can
often use that time to establish a lead in users, switching costs, and complementary
products that can be difficult for rivals to match; established firms may try to make it
difficult for rivals to gain compatibility with their users, standards, or product complements.
Large firms may also create uncertainty among those considering adoption of a rival by
preannouncing competing products.
Ch.7:“Facebook:Building a Business from the Social Graph”
Cash-flow positive: when a company’s revenues can cover its operation costs
Goes-public: the first time a firm sells stock to the public; formally called and initial
public stock offering (IPO)
-If you’re and investor and Facebook goes public, should you short the firm
or increase your holdings?
-short: short selling is an attempt to profit from a falling stock price; short
sellers sell share they don’t own with an obligation of later repayment; they
do so in hope that the price of sold shares will fall; they then repay share debt
with shares purchased at a lower price and pock the difference (spread)
between initial share price and repayment price
venture capitalists (VCs): investor groups that provide funding in exchange for a
stake in the firm, and often, a degree of managerial control (usually in the form of a
voting seat or seats on the firm’s board of directors)
-earlier investments are riskier for the company because VCs can demand
more favorable terms
board of directors: Group assigned to govern, advise, and provide oversight for the
firm. The board’s many responsibilities typically include hiring and firing the CEO
-Zuckerberg owns 20-30% of company and controls 3 of the 5 seats on the
firm’s board of directors
*Key Takeaway #1: Facebook was founded by a 19 yr. old college sophomore and eventual
dropout; It is currently the largest social network in the world w/ more than 400 million
members and usage rates that would be the envy of most media companies. Firm is now larger
than MySpace in both the U.S. and worldwide. ; The firm’s rapid rise is the result of network
effects and the speed of its adoption placed its founder in strong position when negotiating w/
venture firms. As a result, Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg retains significant influence
over firm. ; While revenue prospects remain sketchy, some reports have valued the firm at $15
billion, based largely on an extrapolation of a Microsoft stake.
Why is Facebook such a big deal?
Growth: between December 2008 and 2009, Facebook was adding between six
hundred thousand and a million users a day
The integrated set of Facebook services encroaches a wide swath of
established Internet businesses; Facebook has become first-choice messaging
and chat service for this generation; Facebook now the biggest photo-sharing
site on the Web; videos too; major new outlets today display Facebook icons
alongside every copyrighted story for others to “share” the content on their
profile via the “Like” button; Link sharing is Facebook’s sharp elbow to the
competition; Facebook at work on its own e-mail system, music service, and
payments mechanism; Facebook has designs for search as well; Facebook is
political (used for lobbying and protests
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Dark Web: Internet content that can’t be indexed by Google and other search
engines; Google and Bing index some Facebook content, but since much of Facebook
is private (only for friends to see), this represents massive blind spot for Google
search. Facebook has intentions to offer its own search engine w/ real-time access
to up-to-the-minute results from status updates, links, and other info. made
available to you by your friends; If Facebook can tie together standard Internet
search w/ its dark Web content, it can possibly break people from the Google
habit.
Cloud: a collection of resources available for access over the Internet; big group of
connected servers that power a site (ex. Facebook cloud); Facebook cloud scattered
across multiple facilities, including server farms in San Francisco, Santa Clara, and n.
Virginia
Open source software (OSS): software the is free and whose code can be accessed
and potentially modified by anyone; Facebook powered by OSS
Telecommunications bandwidth (aka bandwidth): Transmission rate, typically
expressed as the number of bits per second that can be transmitted by a particular
telecommunications mechanism
*Key Takeaways #2: Facebook’s position as the digital center of its members’ online social
lives has allowed firm to envelop related businesses such as photo and video sharing,
messaging, bookmarking, and link sharing. ; Much of sites content is dark Web, unable to
be indexed by Google or other search engines and this may create and opportunity for
Facebook to challenge Google in search. ; Facebook can be vital took for organizerspresenting itself as both opportunity and threat to those in power; Facebook’s growth requires
continued and massive infrastructure investment as site powered largely on commodity
hardware, OSS, & proprietary code tailored to the specific needs of the service.
SOCIAL GRAPH: the global mapping of users and organizations, and how they are
connected; Facebook’s ability to collect, express, and leverage the connections between the
site’s users; it was the “realness” (had to establish via email your school/organization/firm,
your real identity) that became Facebook’s distinguishing feature- bring alone w/ it a
degree of safety and comfort enabling Facebook to become a true social utility and build out
a social graph consisting of verified relationships; Facebook’s social graph stronger than
MySpace b/c of trust.
Strong network effect to Facebook: people attracted to the service b/c others they care
about are more likely to be there than anywhere else online; Facebook wouldn’t exist w/o
the network effect; its because of this network effect another person cant rip off Zuckerberg
in any market where Facebook is biggest fish
Switching costs of Facebook: a move to another service means recreating your entire
social graph; the more time you spend on the service, the more you’ve invested in your
graph and the less likely you are to move to a rival
The value isn’t in the technology; its in what the technology has created over time.
For Facebook, it’s a huge user base that is not going anywhere else.
*Key Takeaways #3: the social graph expresses the connections b/w individuals and
organizations; trust created through user verification and friend approval requiring both
parties to consent encouraged Facebook users to share more and helped firm establish
stronger social graph than MySpace or other social networking rivals ; Facebook’s key
resources for competitive advantage are network effects and switching costs. These
resources make it very difficult for copycat firms to steal market share from Facebook
Facebook Feeds: w/ feeds each time a user performs an activity in Facebook –
makes a friend, uploads pic, joins group- feed blasts this info. to all your friends
that shows up right when they log in; individual user’s activities also listed w/i mini
feed that shows up on profile; Feeds perhaps the cornerstone of Facebook’s ability
to strengthen and deliver user value from social graph, but, for brief period feeds
were a possible kill for the company; many saw feeds as a viral blast of digital
nosiness- a release of info. they hadn’t consented to distribute widely.
- many users mobilized against the firm in just 24 hours
against the feeds;
- Zuckerberg apologized w/ letter on Facebook explaining
you can opt-out of feeds; controversy blew over
*Key Takeaways #4: Facebook feeds foster viral spread of info. and activity ; feeds initially
unwanted by Facebook users; feeds helped fuel online protests against feed feature ; Today
feeds considered one of most vital, value-adding features to Facebook and other socialnetworking sites ; users often misperceive technology and have difficulty in recognizing effort’s
value (and risks). They have every right to be concerned and protective of privacy; it is
responsibility of firms to engage users on new initiatives and protect user privacy
Facebook as a Platform:
Facebook published a set of application programming interfaces (APIs) that
specified how programs could be written to run w/i and interact w/ Facebook; any
programmer to could write an application that would run inside a user’s profile
Definition: programming hooks, or guidelines, published by firms that tell
other programs how to get a service to perform a task such as send or
receive data. (Ex. Amazon.com provides APIs to let developers write their
own applications and Websites that can send the firm orders).
-developers could charge for their wares, offer them for free, and run ads; Facebook
let developers keep what they made (Facebook does revenue share w/ app.
Vendors)
-to promote apps, Facebook would run an Applications area on site where users
could browse offerings ; also in News Feed
*Key Takeaways #5: Facebook’s platform allows firm to further leverage the network effect;
developers creating apps create complementary benefits that have the potential to add value
to Facebook beyond what the firm itself provides to its users ; There is no revenue-sharing
mandate among platform partners- whatever an app makes can be kept by developers ; most
Facebook apps are focused on entertainment ; running platform can be challenging ;
copyright, security, appropriateness, free speech tensions, efforts that tarnish platform
operator brands, privacy, and the potential for competition w/ partners, all can make
platform management more complex than simply creating set of standards for public
Attention Challenges: Hunt vs. Hike : in terms of revenue model Facebook is
radically different from Good and the hot-growth category of online search
advertising.
Users of Google and other search sites are on a HUNT - a task-oriented expressed
to collected info. that will drive a specific action; search users want to learn
something, buy something, research, or get question answered. To the extent
the hunt overlaps w/ ads, it works. => higher click on adds rate than social network
Users of Facebook are on a HIKE – they have a rough idea of what they’ll
encounter, but they’re here to explore and look around, enjoy the sights; users
have allocated time for fun and don’t want to leave terrain when having
conversations, looking at pics/videos, seeing updates from friends
*Key Takeaways #6: content adjacency (concern that an advertisement will run near
offensive material, embarrassing an advertiser and/or degrading their products/brands)
and user attention make social networking ads less attractive than search and professional
produced content sites. ; Google enjoys significantly higher click-through rates than Facebook.
; Display ads are often charged based on impression. Social networks also offer lover CPM rates
than many other, more targeted Web sites.; Social networking has been difficult to monetize,
as users are online to engage friends, not to hunt for products or be drawn away by clicks;
many firms have begun to experiment w/ engagement ads. While there have been some
successes, engagement campaigns often hadn’t yielded significant results.
Opt-in: choose to join; requires customer consent
Opt-out: leave. Ex. When you sign up for something at the bottom is a box already
checked for you and you must opt-out to not receive those “emails on deals”; enroll
all customers by default
-Beacon failed because it was an opt-out system that was not thoroughly
tested beforehand, and b/c user behavior, expectations, and system procedures were not completely taken into account
Free-rider problem: when other’s take advantage of a user or service without providing
any sort of reciprocal benefit; too much data portability presents a free rider problem
where firms mooch off Facebook’s infrastructure without offering much in return.
Crowdsourcing: the act of taking a job traditionally performed by a designated agent
(usually an employee) and outsourcing it to an undefined generally large group of people in
the form of an open call
Localization: adapting products and services for different languages and regional
differences
-Facebook’s crowdsourcing localization effort, where users were asked to look at
Facebook’s phrases and offer translation suggestions for their local language helped the
firm rapidly deploy versions in dozens of markets, blasting the firm past MySpace in global
reach.
How is On-Demand software (SaaS) different than traditional software?
Traditional Software: software installed on a user’s computer, software normally purchased
up-front, customer responsible for data security and backup, and software updates must be
installed on local computer
On-Demand: Software accessed over the Internet, monthly subscription fees common,
software company responsible for data security and backup, software updates occur at
company
Thin-client: Social networking sites aren’t the only ones moving to the “cloud” (SaaS, ondemand software, Application service provider (ASP). Many traditional software companies
are creating Thin client applications: software that can be used online without being
installed on a user’s computer
Ch.13:“Software in Flux: Partly Cloudy & Sometimes Free”
Marginal cost (variable cost): the cost of producing one more unit of a product;
unlike physical products assembled from raw materials, the marginal cost to
produce an additional copy of a software product is effectively zero. Just duplicate,
no additional input required.; that quality leads to business that can gush cash (Microsoft);
network effects and switching cost can also offer a leading software firm a degree of customer
preference and lock in that can establish a firm as a standard, creating a winner-take–all
market
Open source software (OSS): software that is free and where anyone can look at
and potentially modify the code; pose a direct challenge to the assets and
advantages cultivated by market leaders; “How can we compete with free” “How can
we make money and fuel innovation on free?”
Cloud computing: replacing computing resources- either an organization’s or
individual’s hardware or software- with services provided over the Internet; a firm
can move software out of its own IS shop so that it is run on someone else’s
hardware
Software as a service (SaaS): a form of cloud computing where a firm subscribes
to a third-party software and receives a service that is delivered online; users access
a vendor’s software over the Internet, usually by simply starting up a Web browser;
Hardware clouds can let firms take their software and run it on someone else’s
hardware, freeing them from the burden of buying, managing, and maintaining the
physical computing that programs need.
Virtualization: a type of software that allows a single computer (or cluster of
connected computers) to function as if it were several different computers, each
running its own operating system and software. Virtualization software strengthens
most cloud computing efforts, and can make computing more efficient, costeffective, and scalable
*Key Takeaways #1: the software business is attractive due to near-zero marginal costs and
an opportunity to establish a standard- creating the competitive advantages of network effects
and switching costs. ; New trends in the software industry, including open source software
(OSS), and virtualization are creating challenges and opportunity across tech markets.
Understanding the impact of these developments can help a manager make better tech. choice
and investment choices.
Linux: an open source software operating system; powers everything from cell
phones to stock exchanges, set top boxes to supercomputers; on 30% of servers in
corporate America; supports most Web servers (Google, Amazon, Facebook);
supports Google’s Android and Chrome OS offerings; used to power Phoenix Lander,
and Spirit and Opportunity Mars rovers
LAMP (Linux Apache MySQL Perl/Python/PHP): an acronym standing for Linux,
the Apache Web server software, the MySQL database, and any of several
programming languages that start with P (Perl, Python, PHP); from Facebook to
YouTube, you’ll find LAMP software powering many of the sites you visit each day.
*Key Takeaways #2: OSS is not only available for free, it also makes source code available for
review and modifications; while open source alternatives are threatening to conventional
software firms, some of the largest tech. companies now support OSS initiatives and work to
coordinate standards, product improvements, and official releases; the leading OSS product is
the Linux operating system, now available on all scales of computing devices; LAMP stack of
open source products is used to power many of Internet’s most popular Web sites
WHY FIRMS choose open source products OVER commercial alternatives because:
-cost: free alternatives to costly commercial code is tremendous motivator since
conventional software often requires customers to pay for every copy used and to pay more
for software that runs on increasingly powerful machines
–reliability : the more people who look at a program’s code, the greater the likelihood that
an error will be caught and corrected
–security : by allowing “many eyes” to examine the code, the security vulnerabilities of
open source products come to light more quickly and can be addressed w/ greater speed
and reliability
-Government agencies and the military often appreciate the opportunity to
scrutinize open source efforts to verify system integrity -Many
OSSvendors offer security focused (hardened) versions of their products; include
systems that monitor the integrity of an OSS distribution, checking file size
and other indicators to be sure that code has not been modified and redistributed by
bad guys who’ve added a back door, malicious routines, or other vulnerabilities
–scalability: allows a firm to scale from start-up to blue chip without having to significantly
rewrite their code, saving big on software development costs; ability to either handle
increasing workloads or to be easily expanded to manage workload increases
–agility and time to market : vendors who use OSS as part of product offerings are able to
skip whole segments of software development process allowing new products to reach
market faster than if the entire software system had to be developed from scratch, in-house
–support communities
*Key Takeaways #3: free OSS results in cost savings for many large companies in several
industries; OSS often has fewer bugs than its commercial counterparts due to the large # of
persons who have looked at the code ; huge expose to scrutiny by developers and other people
helps to strengthen the security of OSS ; “hardened” versions of OSS products include systems
that monitor the integrity of OSS distribution, checking file size and other indicators to be sure
code hasn’t been modified and redistributed by bad guys ; OSS easily migrated to more
powerful computers and balance workload by distributing work over a # of machines
Major Corporations contributing to Linux: 75% of code developed by programmers
working for corporations : Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Microsystems, JAVA, Novell, Nokia
Examples of OSS and their commercial product equivalent:
-Firefox – a Web browser that competes w/ Internet Explorer
-OpenOffice- a competitor to Microsoft Office
-Gimp- a graphic took w/ features found in Photoshop
-Alfresco- collaboration software that competes w/ Microsoft Sharepoint and EMC’s
Documentum
-Marketcetera- an enterprise trading platform for hedge fund managers that competes
with FlexTrade and Portware
-Zimbra- open source e-mail software that competes w/ Outlook server
-MySQL, Ingres, and EnterpriseDB- open source database software packages that each go
head-to-head w/ commercial products from Oracle, Microsoft, Sybase, and IBM
-SugarCRM- customer relationship management software that competes w/ Salesforce.com
and Siebel
-Asterix- an open source implementation for running a PBX corporate technology system
that competes w/ offerings from Nortel and Cisco, among others
-Free BSD and Sun’s OpenSolaris- open source versions of the Unix operating system
How do vendors of OSS make money $?
1)selling support and consulting services 2) developing commercial software addons 3) enhancing hardware offerings; Red Hat paid subscriptions offering access to
software updates and support services ; Oracle sells commercial ERP and database
products, provides Linux for free, selling high-margin Linux support contracts; Sun
Microsystems used OSS to drive advanced hardware sales and sold proprietary
products that augment its open source efforts (special optimization, configuration
management, and performance tools that can tweak OSS code to work its best)
Total cost of ownership (TCO): all of the costs associated w/ the design, development,
testing, implementation, documentation, training and maintenance of a software system;
Linux isn’t as easy to install and use on desktop computers as Windows and Mac OS are; this
complexity raises the total cost of ownership of Linux desktops; the added complexity and
limited desktop application availability of desktop Linux just isn’t worth the little money
saved giving up Windows or Mac OS
SQL (structured query language): a language for creating and manipulating databases;
SQL is by far the most common database standard in use today, and is supported by many
commercial and open source products; method for organizing and accessing data; MySQL is
most popular used open source database
*Key Takeaways #4: Business models for firms in open source industry are varied and can
include selling services, licensing OSS for incorporation into commercial products, and using
OSS to fuel hardware sales ; many firms trying to use OSS markets to drive a wedge between
competitors and their customers ; Linux been very successful on mobile devices and consumer
electronics and high-end server class and above computers. Not successful on the desktop b/c
small user base for desktop Linux makes the platform unattractive to desktop software
developers.
Categories of Cloud computing:
1) software as a service (SaaS): where a firm subscribes to a third-party
software-replacing service that is delivered online
2) utility computing: form of cloud computing where firm develops its own
software, and then runs it over the Internet on a service provider’s
computers
Benefits to users of SaaS:
-lower costs by eliminating or reducing software, hardware, maintenance, and IT
staff expenses
-financial risk mitigation since start-up costs are so low
-potentially faster deployment times compared w/ installed packaged software or
systems developed in-house
-costs that are a variable operating expense rather than a large, fixed capital
expense
-scalable systems that make it easier for firms to ramp up during periods of
unexpectedly high system use
service level agreement (SLA): a negotiated agreement b/w the customer
and the vendor; the SLA may specify the levels of availability, serviceability,
performance, operation, or other commitment requirements; vendors sign a
SLA w/ their customers to ensure a guaranteed uptime and define their
ability to meet demand spikes
-higher quality and service levels through instantly available upgrades, vendor
scale economies, and expertise gained across its entire client base
-remote access and availability – most SaaS offerings are accessed through any
Web browser, and often even by phone or other mobile device
Benefits to vendors of SaaS:
-Limiting development to a single platform, instead of having to create versions
for different operating systems
-tighter feedback loop w/ clients, helping fuel innovation and responsiveness
-ability to instantly deploy bug fixes and product enhancements to all users
-lower distribution costs
-accessibility to anyone with an Internet connection
-greatly reduced risk of software piracy
-Firms leveraging these models potentially benefit from a host of SaaS
advantages, including direct-to-consumer distribution; instant upgrades;
continued revenue streams rather than one-time purchase payments; method
for combating piracy
Risks associated w/ SaaS
-dependence on a single vendor: if you SaaS vendor goes under, they have all your
data, and even if you could get the data out, most organizations don’t have the
hardware, software, staff, or expertise to absorb an abandoned function
-concern about the long-term viability of partner firms- any hot technology is
likely to attract a lot of start-ups, and most of them will not survive
-users may be forced to migrate to new versions- possibly incurring unforeseen
training costs and shifts in operation procedures
-reliance on a network connection- which may be slower, less stable, and less
secure
-data asset stored off-site- with the potential for security and legal concerns
-limited configuration, customization, and system integration options compared
to packaged software or alternatives developed in-house
-the user interface of Web-based software is often less sophisticated and lacks
the richness of most desktop alternatives
-ease of adoption may lead to pockets of unauthorized IT being used throughout
and organization
Hardware clouds: a cloud computing model in which a service provider makes
computing resources such as hardware and storage, along with infrastructure
management available to a customer on an as-needed basis. The provider typically
charges usage rather than a flat rate. In the past, similar efforts have been described
as utility computing, hosting, or even time sharing. ; a firm replaces computing
hardware that it might otherwise run on-site w/ a service provided by a third party
online
Cloudbursting: describes the use of cloud computing to provide excess capacity
during periods of spiking demand; cloudbursting is a scalability solution that is
usually provided as an overflow service, kicking in as needed
Black swans: unpredicted, but highly impactful events; scalable computing
resources can help a firm deal w/ spiking impact from Black Swan events; the
phrase entered the managerial lexicon from the 2007 book of the same name by
Nassim Taleb; idea when we reach unexpected peak in traffic/volume and we can’t
control it
Challenges of switching computing hardware to the cloud
-most large organizations run a mass amount of systems that include both package
applications and custom code written in-house; installing a complex set of systems
on someone else’s hardware is almost impossible; most cloud computing efforts
focus on new software development projects rather than options for old software
fault-tolerant: capable of continuing operation even if a component fails; vendors
w/ multiple data centers that are able to operate w/ fault-tolerant provisioning,
keeping a firm’s efforts at more than one location to account for any operating
interruptions, will appeal to firms w/ stricter uptime requirements
*Key Takeaways #5: 80% of corp. tech. spending goes to data center maintenance.
Hardware-focused cloud computing initiatives from 3rd party firms help tackle cost by
allowing firms to run their own software on the hardware of the provider ; Amazon, EMC,
Google, IBM, Microsoft, Oracle/Sun, Rackspace, and Salesforce.com among firms offering
platforms to run custom software projects. Some offer additional tools and services, including
additional support for cloud-based software development, hosting, application integration,
and backup ; users of cloud computing run the gamut of industries, including publishing (NY
TIMES), finance (NASDAQ), and cosmetics and skin care
Server farm: a massive network of computer servers running software to
coordinate their collective use. Server farms provide the infrastructure backbone to
SaaS and hardware cloud efforts, as well as many large-scale Internet services
Cloud computing can decrease barriers to entry by lowering the cost to access
powerful systems and software
How is cloud computing’s impact across industries proving to be broad and
significant?
LOWERS COST OF PURCHASE AND REINVESTMENT OF CAPITAL TO THINGS
OTHER THAN “KEEPING THE LIGHTS ON”; -constantly fixing/upgrading but
Taking away focus on what you DO rather than making NEW products
*Key Takeaways #6: cloud computing’s impact across industries is proving to be broad and
significant; clouds can lower barriers to entry in an industry, making it easier for start-ups to
launch and smaller firms to leverage the backing of powerful tech. ; clouds may also lower the
amt. of capital a firm needs to launch a business, shifting power away from venture firms in
those industries that had previously needed more VC money ; clouds can shift resources out of
capital spending and into profitability and innovation; hardware and software sales may drop
as cloud use increases which will increase service revenues ; cloud computing can accelerate
innovation and therefore changes the desired skills mix and job outlook for IS workers ;
demand for business-savvy technologists is spiking
Virtualization (a kind of operating system for operating systems): a type of
software that allows a single computer or cluster of connected computers to
function as it if it were several diff. computers, each running its own operating
system and software; virtualization software underpins most cloud computing
efforts, and can make computing more efficient, cost-effective, and scalable ; the
most sophisticated products also make it easy for organizations to scale computing
requirements across several servers
-the key software building block that makes public cloud computing happen
-can also be used in-house to reduce an organization’s hardware needs, and
even create a firm’s own private cloud of scalable assets
-works on the desktop, allowing multiple operating systems (Mac OS X,
Linux, Windows) to run simultaneously on the same platform
Virtual desktop: when a firm runs an instance f a PC’s software on another machine
and simply delivers the image of what’s executing to the remote device. Using
virtualization, a single serve can run as dozens of PCs, simplifying backup, upgrade,
security, and administration
Ch.8:“The Data Asset: Databases, Business Intelligence and
Competitive Advantage”
-Increasingly standardized corporate data, and access to rich, third-party data setsall leveraged by cheap, fast computing and easier-to-use software- are collectively
enabling a new age of data-driven, fact-based decision making
Business Intelligence (BI): A term combining aspects of reporting, data
exploration, and ad hoc queries, and sophisticated data modeling and analysis.
“Decision support systems”
Analytics: a term describing the extensive use of data, statistical and quantitative
analysis, explanatory and predictive models, and fact-based management to drive
decisions and actions
-The data a firm can leverage is a true strategic asset when it’s rare, valuable,
imperfectly imitable, and lacking in substitutes.
-differentiation will be key in distinguishing operationally effective data use from
those efforts that can yield true strategic positioning
*Key Takeaways #1: the amount of data on corporate hard drives doubles every 6 months ; in
many organizations, available data is not exploited to advantage ; data is oftentimes
considered a defensible source of competitive advantage; however, advantages based on
capabilities and data that others can acquire will be short-lived
Transaction processing systems (TPS): systems that record a transaction (some
form of business-related exchange) such as a cash register sale, ATM withdrawal, or
product return.; every time consumer users a point-of-sale system, an ATM, or a
service desk, there’s a transaction occurring, representing an event likely worth
tracking
Transaction: some kind of business exchange
Loyalty card: systems that provide rewards and usage incentives, typically in
exchange for a method that provides a more detailed tracking and recording of
customer activity. In addition to enhancing data collection, loyalty cards can
represent a significant switching cost
Enterprise software includes not just CRM systems but also categories that
touch every aspect of the value chain; software tends to be more integrated
and standardized than the prior era of proprietary systems that many firms
developed themselves
-CRM (Customer Relationship Management) Systems: used to empower employees
to track and record data at nearly every point of customer contact
-SCM (Supply Chain Management) Systems
-ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) Systems
-Combining a firm’s data w/ bits brought in from outside can provide key
operational insight for increased efficiency and cost savings and when combined w/
a firm’s unique data assets, it may give firms a high-impact edge
data aggregators: firms that collect and resell data; very big business; provide
genuinely helpful data to a wide variety of organizations; represent a big target for
identity thieves; a method for spreading potentially incorrect data; raise privacy
concerns
*Key Takeaways #1: data that can be purchases from aggregators may not in and of itself
yield sustainable competitive advantage since other may have access to this data too. When
combined w/ a firm’s proprietary data or integrated w/ a firm’s proprietary procedures or
other assets, 3RD PARTY DATA can be a key tool for enhancing ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
-The big culprit limiting BI initiatives is getting data into form where it can be
used, analyzed, and turning into information
legacy systems: older information systems that are often incompatible w/ other
systems, technologies, and ways of conducting business; Incompatible legacy
systems can be a major roadblock to turning data into information, and they can
inhibit firm agility, holding back operational and strategic initiatives.
-most transactional databases aren’t set up to be simultaneously accessed for
reporting and analysis; In order to run analytics the data must first be ported
to a data warehouse or data mart
-Firms typically need to create separate data repositories for their reporting and
analytics work- a kind of staging area from which to turn that data into info.
-data warehouse: a set of databases designed to support decision making in
an organization; structured for fast online queries and exploration; may
aggregate enormous amounts of data from many diff. operational systems
-data mart: a database or databases focused on addressing the concerns of a
specific problem (increasing customer retention, improving product quality)
business unit (marketing, engineering)
What are the issues that need to be addressed in order to design, develop,
deploy, and maintain data warehouses?
-data relevance: what data is needed to compete on analytics and to meet our
current and future goals
-data sourcing: where can data we need be obtained? Can we get it from our
internal systems? 3rd party aggregators? Suppliers or sales partners?
-data quantity: how much data needed?
-data hosting: where will systems be housed? What are the hardware and
networking requirements for the effort?
-data governance: what rules and processes needed to manage data from
its creation through retirement? Legal issues? Privacy issues? Security and
access?
-The idea behind query and reporting tools is to present users w/ a subset of
requested data, selected, sorted, ordered, calculated, and compared, as needed;
manages use these tools to see and explore what’s happening inside organ.
DATA  INFO
Canned reports: reports that provide regular summaries of info. in a
predetermined format
Ad hoc reporting tools: tools that put users in control so they can create custom
reports on an as-needed basis by selecting fields, ranges, summary conditions, and
other parameters
Digital Dashboards: a heads-up display of critical indicators that allow managers
to get a graphical glance at key performance metrics
OLAP: online analytical processing: method of querying and reporting that takes
data from standard relational databases, calculates and summarizes the data, and
then stores the data in a special database called a data cube
Query: a way of asking a database for info. (ex. logging into Facebook – question to
database and returns with all your profile info)
Data Mining: the process of using computers to identify hidden patterns in, and to
build models from, large data sets
Some of the keys where businesses are leveraging data mining:
1) customer segmentation: figuring out which customers are likely to be the most
valuable to a firm
2) marketing and promotion targeting: identifying which customers will respond to
which offers at which price at which time
3) MARKET BASKET ANALYSIS: determining which products customers buy together,
and how an organization can use this info. to cross-sell more products or services
4) Collaborative filtering: personalizing an individual customer’s experience based on
the trends and preferences identified across similar customers
5) Customer churn: determining which customers are likely to leave, and what tactics
can help the firm avoid unwanted defections
6) Fraud detection: uncovering patterns consistent with criminal activity
7) Financial modeling: building trading systems to capitalize on historical trends
8) Hiring and promotion: identifying characteristics consistent w/ employee success in
the firm’s various roles
For dating mining to work, two critical conditions must be present:
1) the organization must have clean, consistent date
2) the events in the data should reflect current and future trends
WAL-MART:
Wal-Mart’s key source of competitive advantage: scale
-tech. tightly coordinates Wal-Mart value chain from tip to tail, while these systems
deliver a minable data asset that’s unmatched in U.S. retail
-Wal-Mart has Retail Link, a system developed in 1991 that records the sale,
automatically triggers inventory reordering, scheduling, and delivery
-firm is currently leading an adoption effort requiring partners to leverage RFID
technology to track and coordinate inventories
*Wal-Mart key takeaways: Wal-Mart demonstrates how a physical product retailer can
create and leverage a data asset to achieve world-class value chain efficiencies ; Wal-Mart
uses data mining in numerous ways, from demand forecasting to predicting the number of
cashiers needed at a store at a particular time ; to help suppliers become more efficient, and as
a result of lower prices, Wal-Mart shares data w/ them
-Despite its success, Wal-Mart is a mature business that needs to find huge markets or
dramatic cost savings in order to boost profits and continue to move its stock price higher. The
firm’s success also makes it a high impact target for criticism and activism. And the firm’s data
assets could not predict impactful industry trends such as the rise of TARGET and other
upscale discounters
database: used to efficiently store and manage large amounts of data; single table
or collection of related tables
ex. iTunes, Library research tools, Store inventory systems, Google,
Blackboard
-self-describing collection of integrated records made up of bytes
Bytes grouped into columns (fields)
Columns grouped into rows (records)
Database: collection of tables + relationships among rows in those tables +
special data called metadata, which describes database structure
Database Management System (DBMS): software to create and maintain data
Relationships and Keys:
Primary Key: column or group of columns that identifies a unique row in a table
-student number- PRIMARY KEY OF STUDENT TABLE
Foreign Key: non-key column or field in one table that links to a primary key in
another table
-Student Number in email and office visit tables links to the student number in
the student table
Relational Databases: store data in tables that represent relationships using
foreign keys
DBMS PRODUCTS: Access (MS personal DBMS), SQL Server (MS enterprise DBMS),
DB2 (IBM), Oracle (Oracle), MySQL (free, open source)
Structured Query Language (SQL): international standard language for
processing DB, all major DBMS products process SQL, can be used to created
databases and DB structures
WHY USE A DATABASE/ 3 TACTICAL ADVANTAGES??
1. Preserve data integrity: assurance data is consistent, correct, accessible
2. Eliminate data redundancy: unnecessary repetition of data that slows
data processing
3. Limit data view: (query, report) so that users only see what they need to
see, as cleanly and clearly as possible
STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE: CONNECTING ACTIVITIES ACROSS THE VALUE CHAIN!!
-improve VALUE CHAIN FUNCTION by improving the QUALITY of connections in the system (w/ DATABASE)
RFM (RECENCY + FREQUENCY + MONEY)= RFM ANALYSIS: a practical exampleanalyzing and ranking customers according to purchasing patterns
How Recently ® customer ordered
How Frequently (F) customer orders
How much Money (M) customer spends per order
Problems w/ transactional (operational) data?
-data in too many places –data is “dirty” or missing values
-inconsistent data and not maintained consistently
-data hard to retrieve from “legacy system”
Dilemma many companies are in that have multiple databases built on
different types of incompatible systems?
-not having one unified DBMS to bring together all information
MICROSOFT CASE STUDY:
What factors made Microsoft so successful between 1990 and 2000?
Competitive advantage
Complementary products
Upgrades
OEMS and ISVs
Bundling
Network externalities aka network effects
· What challenges was Microsoft facing between 2000 and 2005?
Firefox challenging internet explorer
Stock value down 45%
Biggest economic challenge = technical support
Threats: imitation (google docs), hold up (litigation and law), market saturation (diversification and
geogrpahic expansion), substitution ( JAVA), security (everyone was after the big guy)
Porters 5 forces model!!
· How did bundling help Microsoft’s profitability?
Bundling was a price discount; everyone wants to work within the same programs; more likely to
buy all of them at a cheaper price and then dominoe effect.
· How did Microsoft’s relationship with OEMs(original equipment manufacturers) and ISVs
(independent software vendors) affect profitability?
WHY CROWD IS BEST ANALYTICAL TOOL:
One of the early premises of Web 2.0 was that data would be “the Intel inside” and firms like NAVTEQ
that provide data would be the big winners. Today we are seeing crowdsourcing increasingly
commoditize data, and projects like OpenStreetMap replacing the NAVTEQs of the world. As the
market moves up the chain, the future value will be the meaningful questions we can answer with
data. This will mean more focus on the “science” side of “data science.” The more social and
collaborative we make the science, the better the answers we’ll create at a scale that is needed for an
explosive market.
DATA WILL GROW BY 50X IN THE NEXT DECADE
-The IDC study predicts that overall data will grow by 50 times by 2020, driven in large part
by more embedded systems such as sensors in clothing, medical devices and structures like
buildings and bridges.
- The study also determined that unstructured information - such as files, email and video will account for 90% of all data created over the next decade. ;The bad news: the number of
IT professionals available to manage all that data will only grow by 1.5 times today's levels,
IDC said. The number of people with the skills and experience to manage the fast-growing
stores of corporate simply isn't keeping pace with demand, IDC noted. ---The study also
notes that data security will continue to be a key issue for IT managers.