The Bureaucracy
Chapter 9
In this discussion we will learn about
• The definition of bureaucracy
• The evolution, organization, and roles of the federal
bureaucracy
• Politics inside the bureaucracy
• The relationship between the federal bureaucracy and the
other branches of the federal government
• How citizens relate to the bureaucracy
What is bureaucracy?
• An organization characterized by hierarchical structure,
worker specialization, explicit rules, and advancement by
merit (experience, tenure and ability) rather than political
patronage.
• Goal is professionalization and the removal of politics (the
political machine) or depoliticized of the work of
government by making it more professional.
– The notion is that in modern public administration, Government
workers (bureaucrats), who are professionally trained and receive
their jobs based on education rather than political connections,
should be loyal to their profession rather than a political party.
What is bureaucracy?, cont’d.
• Classic definition from Max Weber (pronounced Vaber):
– Hierarchy: clear chain of command and responsibility
– Specialization: tasks divided by expertise
– Explicit rules: rules rather than preferences govern
decisions; have standardization, predictability
– Merit: hiring based on exams and experience, not
politics
Father of modern U.S. Bureaucracy: President Woodrow
Wilson
Tammany Hall
• The Tammany Society of
New York City was founded
in 1786 as a fraternal
organization whose primary
activities were social. By
1798, however, the
society's activities had
grown increasingly
politicized and eventually
Tammany emerged as the
central proponent of
Jeffersonian policies in the
city of New York
Tammany Hall
• Tammany Hall was the name
given to the Democratic
political machine that
dominated New York City
politics from the mayoral
victory of Fernando Wood in
1854 through the election of
Fiorello LaGuardia in 1934. The
eighty-year period between
those two elections marks the
time in which Tammany was
the city's driving political force,
but its origins actually date to
the late eighteenth century and
its fall from power was not truly
complete until the early 1960s
Chicago’s Mayor Daily’s Machine
• Richard Joseph Daley served for 21 years
as the mayor and undisputed Democratic
boss of Chicago and is considered by
historians to be the "last of the big city
bosses." He played a major role in the
history of the Democratic party,
especially with his support of John F.
Kennedy in 1960.
• His son, Richard Michael Daley was the
last Mayor of Chicago. He was elected
mayor in 1989 and reelected in 1991,
1995, 1999, 2003, and 2007. His 2007 reelection put him in position to become
the longest-serving mayor in Chicago’s
history, a record currently held by his
father.
• Current Chicago Mayor is Rahm Emanuel.
Benefits of the Spoils System
• Winning Presidential
candidate gives
government jobs to
supporters
– Began in earnest with
Andrew Jackson
• Benefits of system
– Government remains
responsive to the people
– Assured loyalty to the
President
– Increases party support,
and possibly political
participation
The spoils system
• Nineteenth-century practice of rewarding political
supporters with public office
– Patronage was undone by civil service reforms, such as
the Pendleton Act (1993) and the Hatch Act (1939)
– Bureaucracies no longer staffed by patronage
– The municipal exception:
• Cities with a “weak” Mayoral structure, meaning a board of
aldermen has significant law making powers, are often
“unreformed” meaning they function using machine style
patronage.
• Examples include the City of St. Louis and Chicago
• Opposites include St. Louis County, which has a city
administrator and professional bureaucracy.
• Some cities have more patronage slots than others.
As shown in the chart below, two-thirds of the 2010 Agriculture earmarks go to a small,
exclusive club within the House of those on the appropriations committee, committee chairs,
and party leadership. Can the appropriations process be characterized as a “spoils system,”
which is evocative of government corruption of the past, such as Tammany Hall?
But unlike the original Tammany Hall, today’s spoils system is not party-based. Instead, it’s run
by an elite and bipartisan group within Congress.
Adopted from a posting by Jake Edwards of the Cato Institute.
Iron Triangle
Why is bureaucracy necessary?
• Large tasks require organization, specialization and
expertise
– Think about what FDA does
– Need agencies to carry out the work of government
• Bureaucracies exist in private sector, too
Program process / implementation matters in program outcome and can
often be complex. Below is a DMV’s activities for determining fitness to drive.
Process
in
theory
16
At any one step, variation from the plan can influence outcome.
17
Privatization
So what about privatization and public/private
partnerships?
Benefits
Private sector thought to be able to do job more
efficiently because money (profit) is valued and is
the bottom line, rather than citizen input
/fairness/process
Detriments
Accountability
– Oversight / Transparency
– Responsiveness
• Examples of privatization:
– Toll roads, bridges and tunnels; utilities; corrections,
military (Blackwater); lotteries; airports; natural
resources
Can government bureaucracies be run
like private bureaucracies?
• In short, no.
• Why?
– Different goals, different functions,
require different processes.
– Business goal: profit
– Government goal: general welfare
• Government agencies must deal with people
externally and internally differently than a private
business
–
–
–
–
Citizen input
Merit system
Interaction of administration and politics
Constitution / other rules and regulations
Possible drawbacks of bureaucracy
• Consequences in a rule-based system
– Decisions are fair, but there is a lot of red tape
– Would be classified as inefficiency in the public sector
Evolution of American federal bureaucracy
• Design of federal bureaucracy less like a coherent
structure and more like a patchwork quilt
– Agencies came into existence as needs, complexities, and
the diversity of the clientele (American citizens) grew.
• First departments served essential government functions
– State, War, Treasury
• Early Federal Government Functions & Responsibilities
primarily limited to:
–
–
–
–
–
Collect tax revenue
Defend the Nation
Conduct foreign relations
Enforce Federal laws
Promote internal communications
Evolution of American Federal Bureaucracy
• Newer departments were responses to changing
public needs, for example,
– Western territories = Interior
– Industrialization = Labor
• What is the latest public need?
Security
Department of Homeland Security
http://www.dhs.gov/index.shtm
Janet Napolitano
Evolution of American federal
bureaucracy, cont’d.
• Departments created to
respond to demands of
clientele groups
– Clientele groups: groups
of citizens whose interests
are affected by an agency
or a department and who
work to influence its
policies
– E.g., agricultural interests
pushed for Dept. of
Agriculture and veterans
for Dept. of Veterans
Affairs
Organization of the federal bureaucracy
Four Types of Federal Agencies:
note: agency rules (or regulations), while in force, have the
power of federal law
1. Executive Departments: major subdivisions of the federal
government, represented in the president’s cabinet
– E.g., Defense, State, Treasury, Homeland Security
2. Independent agencies: government organizations
(established by Congress) independent of Executive
Departments yet most falling within the executive branch
and with a narrower policy focus than existing
departments
– E.g., EPA, CIA, Peace Corps, NASA
– All heads serve at “Pleasure of President”
Organization of the federal
bureaucracy, cont’d.
3. Independent regulatory boards and commissions:
government organizations that regulate various
businesses, industries, or economic sectors
– E.g., FDA, FCC, National Labor Relations Board
4. Government corporations: companies created by
Congress to provide goods or services to the public that
private enterprise cannot or will not profitably provide
– E.g., Insurance (FDIC), Energy (TVA), Communications /
Postal Service (PO), Trans (AMTRAC)
Roles of the Federal Bureaucracy
Federal Government Rule Making (1940-2004)
Civilian Federal Employees 1820-2003
Era of “reinventing government”
Federal Government Growth (1820-2003):
Per Capita Spending vs. People Employed
Federal Bureaucracy now
spending & doing more per
person (per capita) w/less
federal employees to do it
32
Politics inside the bureaucracy
• Specialization and expertise
– Know more about policy than politicians and public
– Why term limits may be bad
• Identify with agency or profession
– Committed to and protective of agency
• Bureaucratic culture: the accepted values and procedures
of an organization
• Consequences of bureaucratic culture
– Positive: commitment helps agency to make policy
– Negative: resistant to suggestions of change, even to
the extent of covering up problems
– Whistle blowers are often the only check against these
negatives
External bureaucratic politics
• Interagency politics: competition between agencies for
budget and resources
• Constituency building
– Build groups of supporters in public and Congress
• Guarding the turf
– Guard own programs and don’t let others duplicate
traditional responsibilities
– Why did 911 happen?
Constraints on federal bureaucracy:
the president
• Appointment power
– Presidents appoint heads and next layers of
departments
•
Power of persuasion
Constraints on the Federal Bureaucracy: The
Congress
• Article I: enumerated powers:
– Says Congress can create also implies: modify or abolish
– Congress can determine Bureaucracy’s structure &
responsibility
– Appropriate funds to accomplish responsibilities
• Congress implied powers:
– Oversight (GAO & CRS)
• Committee & Sub-committee’s role
– Budget authorization & appropriation for programs
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Constraints on the federal bureaucracy:
the courts
• Courts may deal with cases against agencies or
departments, but rarely
– Administrative Law takes place within bureaucratic structure
• Courts can place legal constraints on the rules
bureaucracies make
Constraints on the federal bureaucracy:
the citizens
• Public seems unable to check bureaucracy.
• Avenues for citizens to control bureaucracies:
– Citizen advisory councils
– Sunshine laws allow citizens to see when meetings are
held
– Sunset: laws or agencies that have a time limit and
must be evaluated and renewed by Congress
• E.g. No Child Left Behind, Patriot Act
– Freedom of Information Act – get copies of agency info
– Privacy Act (1974) – access to agency files on oneself