Roman History
Early Roman Heroes
Aeneas– Trojan leader, ancestor of the Romans, son of Anchises and Venus, hero of Vergil’s
Aeneid. Escaped from Troy and wandered many years before coming to Latium. He founded
Lavinium and his son Ascanius founded Alba Longa.
Romulus and Remus– twin brothers, sons of Rhea Silvia (descendant of Aeneas) and the god
Mars. They were suckled as babies by a she-wolf. The farmer Faustulus and his wife Acca
Laurentia adopted them as their own children. The twins argued to see who had more power to
define the new city. Romulus ended up killing his brother and founding the city of Rome.
The next three heroes performed their heroic deeds right after the last Roman king, Tarquinius
Superbus, was expelled from the city and the Romans were fighting against Lars Porsenna, the king
of the Etruscan city of Clusium.
1. Mucius Scaevola- tried to assassinate Lars Porsena but was caught and condemned to
death. To show physical endurance, he put his right hand into the fire prepared for his
execution. Because of this, he lost his right hand and so they called him Scaevola (“Lefty”).
2. Horatius Cocles- defended the wooden Sulpician Bridge over the Tiber when the
Etruscans were trying to cross it in order to attack Rome. He had a colleague saw off the
bridge at the Roman end as he stood at the Etruscan end fighting off the Etruscan soldiers.
When the bridge fell, he jumped into the Tiber and swam to shore. He lost an eye in battle
and thus was called Cocles (“one-eyed”).
3. Cloelia- was given as a hostage to Lars Porsena. She escaped with the other Roman girls by
swimming across the Tiber. She was sent back to Porsena as a pledge of peace. Porsena
then liberated her.
Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus- consul in 460 BC; in 458 he was farming when he was called to be
a dictator and lead the Roman army. After defeating the Aequi, he renounced the dictatorship and
returned to his plow.
Decius Mus- as consul in 295 BC, he rushed into the midst of the enemy, at Sentinum, as an
example to the soldiers. He was killed immediately by the Samnite enemy who had allied
themselves to the Gauls. This heroic example of Decius Mus inspired the Romans to fight hard and
they defeated the combined Samnites and Gauls. This battle helped bring to an end the Samnite
problem.
Appius Claudius- censor in 312 BC; built the first aqueduct to supply Rome with water. He also
built the Via Appia from Rome to Capua. During the war with Pyrrhus, he persuaded the Senate
not to go along with Pyrrhus’ demands for peace. So, the Romans continued to fight and eventually
won. At this point he was called Appius Claudius Caecus (“the blind”) because he was blind.
Regulus- Roman general and consul captured in the First Punic War. The Carthaginians sent him,
as a prisoner of war, back to Rome to try to persuade the Romans to hand over the Carthaginian
hostages in exchange for Regulus. Regulus told the Senate not to make the exchange, travelled
back to Carthage, and was put to death.
Periods of Roman History
Monarchy (753 BC – 509 BC) – 7 kings
1. Romulus– tried to increase the population by holding a festival to Consus (god of granary or
storehouse) and inviting the neighboring Sabines. The Roman men kidnapped the Sabine
women (this was later called the Rape of the Sabines).
Titus Tatius, king of the Sabine town of Cures, led the Sabine men against Rome. He used
the Roman woman Tarpeia to deceive the Romans (She had said that she wanted what was on
the Sabine arms, which happened to be gold armlets. Instead they crushed her to death with
what was on their other arms- their shields). After the battle, the Romans had 2 kings, Romulus
and Titus Tatius.
2. Numa Pompilius- Sabine priest-king, who established the cults and priests (flamines,
pontifices, Salii, Vestal Virgins); he reformed the calendar, changing the 10 month year to 12.
His spiritual counselor was the nymph Egeria, though some say she was his wife.
3. Tullus Hostilius (673-642 BC)- warrior king; fought against Alba Longa. This fight was
resolved by the battle of the two sets of triplet brothers. The Horatii of Rome fought against the
Curiatii of Alba Longa. Only one man, a Horatius, survived this encounter.
4. Ancus Marcius- wise in peace and strong in war; he extended Roman influence to Ostia. Some
say he founded Ostia. He built the first bridge, the Pons Sublicius, which was entirely of wood.
He gained control of the salt routes from Ostia to Rome.
5. Tarquinius Priscus (616-579 BC) an Etruscan; increased the Senate, built the Cloaca Maxima
to drain the Forum, established the Roman Games. His wife was Tanaquil.
6. Servius Tullius (578-535 BC) was helped to the throne by Tanaquil. He instituted new
military units and property classes, built earthworks on the eastern hills, and established a
Latin League cult site to Diana on the Aventine Hill. His daughter Tullia was married to
Tarquinius Superbus.
7. Tarquinius Superbus (534-510 BC) murdered Servius Tullius, incited by Tullia; was a tyrant,
built the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and made a treaty with the Gabii. The end of the
monarchy was due to his tyrannical nature. The ultimate treachery, however, was the rape, by
his son Sextus, of Lucretia, wife of Tarquinius Collatinus. She committed suicide rather than
face her family in disgrace.
Lucius Iunius Brutus, a friend of her husband, incited the Romans to revolt. The monarchy
was abolished and 2 consuls were elected instead of a king. Brutus killed his own sons who
were part of a conspiracy to bring back the house of Tarquin. The Etruscan king Lars
Porsenna of Clusium tried to help the Tarquins recapture Rome, but he was stopped at the
bridge by Horatius. The bravery of Mucius Scaevola and Cloelia made him finally give up. The
Latins battled the Romans, in an attempt to restore Tarquin, at Lake Regillus in 496 BC. Legend
says that the great twins, Castor and Pollux, appeared in Rome and said that the Romans had
won.
Republic (509 BC – 27 BC)
1st Secession of Plebs– 494 BC- the plebs (the common people, as opposed to the aristocrats) left
Rome and went to the Mons Sacer. It was Menenius Agrippa who persuaded them to return with
his parable of the Belly and the Limbs (i.e., they were as vital to the state as were the patricians).
From this secession the plebs gained 2 plebeian tribunes.
Gnaeus Marcius was a patrician who won in 493 BC a glorious victory over the Volsci and
captured Corioli; he was then named Coriolanus. But, in a dispute with the patricians, he defected
to the Volsci. Later, he marched at the head of the Volsci against Rome. The Romans were not able
to stop him from the attack by appealing to his patriotism. Only his mother Veturia and his wife
Volumnia were able to do so by appealing to his pietas (his sense of duty to family, country, and
gods). He then turned back, when only 4 miles from Rome.
Commission of 10 (Decemviri)- 451 BC- During the suspension of the regular constitution and
magistrates, the state was governed by these 10 patricians, who issued the new code of the 10
Tables. In 450 BC, another commission finished the work. Other than the leading patrician Appius
Claudius, all members were new, and some were plebeians. They added 2 more Tables, and ruled
unjustly, refusing to resign. The plebs seceded again and this caused the restoration of
constitutional government. Appius Claudius then killed himself.
Gallic Sack of Rome- 390 BC- led by the Gallic chieftain Brennus. After the Gauls defeated the
Romans at the Allia River, most of the Romans fled Rome, but the old Senators, who were not able
to flee, stayed, seated in their official ivory seats, awaiting their fate with dignity. The exiled M.
Furius Camillus, a disgraced former dictator, was once again appointed dictator at his home in
Veii. When a Roman came from Veii and stole onto the besieged Capitoline Hill to tell the survivors
there that Camillus was now the new dictator, the Gauls followed him and would have taken the
Capitol by surprise, but the sacred geese aroused M. Manlius Capitolinus in time. 7 months later
the Romans were forced to pay the Gauls a thousand pounds of gold to withdraw. As the gold was
being weighed out, Camillus appeared and drove the Gauls out. For this he was called the 2nd
founder of Rome.
Punic Wars
1st (264-241 BC) – fought over Sicily. Result= Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica become Roman provinces.
2nd (218-201 BC) – Romans defeated by Hannibal at the battles of the Ticinus River (218), the
Trebia River (218), and Lake Trasimene (217) at which the consul Flaminius and entire Roman
army were killed. The dictator Q. Fabius Maximus tried harassing Hannibal instead of fighting
him and thus was named Cunctator (“The Delayer”). The new consul Varro led the army to a huge
defeat at Cannae (217). Finally a Roman (Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus) defeated
Hannibal back in Africa at Zama (202). Spain became a province a few years later.
3rd (149-146 BC) – Marcus Porcius Cato Senex, censor, consul (195 BC) continually said
“Carthago delenda est.” (Carthage must be destroyed.) Rome destroyed Carthage finally and by
treachery.
Tiberius Gracchus- tribune 133 BC, tried agrarian reform, was killed by Roman senators in the
streets of Rome
Gaius Gracchus- his brother, elected tribune in 123 BC; tried agrarian reform, was reelected in
233 BC but not reelected in 121 BC, followed by much rioting in the streets. Thousands of his
followers were killed and he committed suicide.
Gaius Marius- consul 107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100 BC; enrolled men with no property in his army
and promised them good retirement and land if they stayed.
He and his quaestor, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, defeated Jugurtha, head of the Numidians, in Africa.
He then defeated the Cimbri and Teutones, 2 Gallic tribes who had invaded southern France.
Major upheavals occurred between Marius and Sulla.
Sulla was dictator from 82-79 BC.
Marcus Licinius Crassus- a very rich Roman statesman; overcame Spartacus, the gladiator who
led a slave revolt, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus finished him off (71-73 BC). The slaves were
crucified. Pompey and Crassus became consuls in 70 BC. Pompey was given the power to defeat
the pirates in the Mediterranean, which he did in 3 months in 67 BC. He was also given power to
defeat Mithradates in 64-63 BC. He brought Rome’s borders to the Euphrates River.
Marcus Tullius Cicero- consul in 63 BC and defeated Lucius Sergius Catilina, who tried to
overthrow the Roman government.
In 60 BC, Pompey, Crassus, and Gaius Julius Caesar formed the First Triumvirate. In 59 BC,
Caesar and Bibulus were consuls. From 58-49 BC, Caesar defeated the Gauls. In 49 BC, he wanted
to run for consul again and so crossed the Rubicon River, coming south out of Gaul and said “alea
iacta est” (the die is cast). He was assassinated on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC.
The Second Triumvirate was formed in 43 BC by Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, Caesar’s
adopted heir. After 12 years of fighting, Octavian defeated Antony at the battle of Actium in 31 BC.
In 27 BC, Octavian changed his name to Augustus and became the 1st emperor. This is the end of
the Republic.
The Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD)
Roman Emperors
Augustus (Octavian) 27 BC-14 AD – first emperor; great nephew and heir of Julius Caesar;
defeated Mark Antony at Actium in 31 BC, establishing peace and stability after over 50 years of
civil war. The first Julio-Claudian emperor.
Tiberius 14-37 AD – Augustus’ stepson and adopted son, son of his wife Livia; good general;
taciturn; not liked by Augustus; spent his later years on Capri. He was neither deified nor
condemned to damnatio memoriae (an erasure of any mention of one’s name in either books or on
statuary or architecture) by the senate. A Julio-Claudian
Caligula (Gaius) 37-41 AD – son of Germanicus, Tiberius’ nephew by his brother Drusus; became
increasingly irrational as an emperor and was killed by the Praetorian Guard. A Julio-Claudian
Claudius 41-54 AD – Caligula’s uncle and Germanicus’ brother; was handicapped and thought to
be stupid, but was really intelligent and a good ruler. He was, however, too easily controlled by
powerful freedmen and women. His son Britannicus was killed by the younger Agrippina, Nero’s
mother, when she became Claudius’ third wife. A Julio-Claudian
Nero 54-68 AD - Nero started out as a reasonable ruler but became increasingly narcissistic. He
was enamored of being a performer, be it artistic or athletic. He spent enormous amounts of
money on his Domus Aurea in the center of Rome after a great fire. He was finally forced to
commit suicide. The last Julio-Claudian
Galba 68-69 AD – chosen by the Senate but quickly lost the favor of the armies and was lynched.
Otho 69 AD – Galba’s successor, who bribed the Praetorian Guard, but then lost favor to his
successor Vitellius.
Vitellius 69 AD – was proclaimed emperor by the armies on the Rhine, marched to Rome, caused
Otho’s suicide, and turned out to be a do-nothing loser.
Vespasian 69-79 AD – a man of equestrian rank; he was sworn in by the eastern armies. He
defeated the Vitellians, managed to bring back economic order to the empire, and restored peace.
The first Flavian emperor
Titus 79-81 AD – elder son of Vespasian; emperor during the eruption on Vesuvius; extremely
well-liked; captured Jerusalem during the Jewish revolt during his father’s reign. The second
Flavian
Domitian 81-96 AD – very capable, but also very much disliked, especially by the Senate. He
behaved in an autocratic manner and acted alone. He was killed by a palace domestic and suffered
damnatio memoriae. The last Flavian
The 5 Good Emperors: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius
Roman Culture
nomina (names) – A Roman man had 3 names:
1. praenomen - a 1st name such as Gaius or Marcus
2. nomen – a family name, telling to which gens one belonged, such as Julius or Tullius
3. cognomen – a particular branch of the gens, such as Caesar or Cicero
Sometimes a man had a 4th name, an agnomen, which was given to him for some exploit.
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus received his agnomen Africanus because he defeated
Hannibal, the African general, in Africa.
familia – the household which included family, relatives, slaves, and clients.
 Paterfamilias – father, who had absolute power of life and death over all in his familia
 Materfamilias – mother, who managed the household, supervised the slaves, and educated
the girls and younger boys
time – Months = Ianuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Quintilis (Iulius), Sextilis
(Augustus), September, October, November, December.
 Kalendae – 1st day of the month
 Nonae – 5th/7th day of the month
 Idus – 13th/15th day of the month
o In March, July, October, and May, the dates of the Nones are the 7th and the
Idus are the 15th
Seasons = Ver (spring), Aestas (summer), Autumnus (autumn), Hiems (winter)
Horae – There were 12 hours of daylight, so the length of the hora would be closer to 75
minutes in the summer and 45 minutes in the winter. The nighttime was divided into 4
watches, or vigilae. They were called prima, secunda, tertia, and quarta.
religio – Roman religion, controlled by the state, was an outgrowth of family religion. The chief of
the state religion was the Pontifex Maximus, who was the head of the college of pontifices or
priests. There were also 3 special priests (flamines) assigned to the 3 major gods Jupiter, Mars,
and Quirinus. The 6 Vestal Virgins kept the fire on the hearth of the goddess Vesta burning, and
guarded the wills of wealthy Romans. The chief of the family religion was the Paterfamilias.
domus – Roman house
insula – an apartment building which took a whole city block and thus was an “island”
surrounded by streets on all sides
forum – a marketplace in the city. There were many fora, but the most famous was the Forum
Romanum. Others included the Forum Boarium (meat market) and the Forum Holitorium
(vegetable market).
In the Forum Romanum were found:
 basilicae - the law courts
 curia – the senate house
 rostra – the speaker’s platform ; a rostrum is a bird’s beak or the lond stick or prow
in front of a ship. After a war in 346 BC with Antium, the platform was decorated
with the prows of the captured Antiate ships.
meals
 ientaculum – a light breakfast of bread, wine, cheese, and olives
 prandium – lunch at noon- bread, wine, cheese, olives, fruit, cold meats, vegetables, nuts
 cena – dinner, the main meal, in the evening
o gustus (appetizers) – 1st course – oysters, shellfish, onions, raw vegetables, lettuce,
eggs, with mulsum (wine and honey) as a drink
o cena – 2nd course – fish, meat, fowl, vegetables
o secunda mensa (dessert) – 3rd course – pastry, sweets, nuts, fruits, with lots of wine
The expression “ab ovō usque ad mala” (from eggs to apples) comes from the above menu (similar
to our expression “from soup to nuts”).
vestis
 tunica – long woolen shirt for indoor wear or for under togas or stolas, usually white
o tunica angusticlavia – 2 narrow purple stripes that the equites could wear
o tunica laticlavia – 2 wide purple stripes that senators could wear
 toga virilis/pura/libera – official dress of Roman citizens, white woolen
 toga praetexta – purple border to be worn by curule officers, censors, and dictators, as well
as by sons of aristocrats
 toga candida – shining white worn by candidates for office
 toga pulla – black or dark grey toga, worn by mourners
 toga picta – wholly purple toga worn by victorious
generals in triumphal procession and later by
emperors
 stola – long dress, worn over the tunica ; worn by
women
 palla – woolen shawl for walking in the street ; worn
by women
 soleae – indoor sandals, taken off at meals
 calcei – outdoor shoes, to be worn with the toga
 mulleus – shoes worn by curule magistrates ; red with
a silver crescent on the outside of the ankle
 caligae – boot-like shoes for soldiers
ludus - ludus litterarum – elementary school (reading, writing, arithmetic) ; litterator – teacher
paedagogus – slave-tutor, who also walked the boy to school and carried his books, etc.
tabellae – wax tablets ; stilus – “pen” for writing on tabellae ; papyrus – paper used for
special occasions.
Schola grammatici – secondary school (language, writing, rhetoric, public speaking)
Schola rhetorici – college/preparation for career such as public speaking, law, etc.
For advanced study, one went to Athens, Rhodes, or Asia Minor.
The Roman House
Although almost every house found at Pompeii has a slightly different layout, most
houses do have similar features.
1.
2.
3.
4.
tabernae – shops which faced the street and were often rented out by the homeowner
vestibulum – large doorway outside the main door(s) of the house
ianua – main door (often double) of the house off the street
fauces – entry passage or lobby between the outer or inner doorways
a. foris – inner door between the fauces and the atrium. Doors of inner rooms were
also called fore
5. cella – small room which could be used by the ianitor, a slave whose job it was to answer
and secure the door
6. cubicula – bedrooms
7. atrium – main hall or public reception room. It had a hole (compluvium) in the high
ceiling, under which there was a pool (impluvium)
a. lararium- shrine, usually in the atrium, where the lares and penates were kept and
prayed to
8. impluvium – pool in the floor under a hole in the roof called a compluvium
9. alae – literally the wings of the atrium. Alcoves perhaps used for storage of unneeded
furniture
10. tablinum – the master’s study in which was kept a large money chest (arca) bolted to the
floor
11. andron – a hallway
12. posticum – side or back door used by servants
13. culina – kitchen
14. triclinium – dining room with 3 couches (lecti)
15. peristylium – formal garden often with geometric planting areas, fountains, a pool, and
sculptured shrubs. When this area was used instead to grow vegetables and fruit, it was
called a hortus.